Conferences to Discuss Women's Rights

Between 1924 and 1929, several conferences were held in different cities: Belgrade (1924), Athens (1925), Prague (1927), and Warsaw (1929). These meetings were organized to track progress on women’s issues in the countries that were part of the Little Entente of Women. The conferences encouraged countries to work together on various topics, such as:

Equal voting rights for women

Protecting children and minorities

Improving the rights of children born outside of marriage

Abolishing the death penalty

Teaching about civilization instead of war in history lessons

Prominent leaders in the Little Entente of Women included Alexandrina Cantacuzino from Romania, Petkovitch from Serbia, Avra Theodoropoulou from Greece, and Justyna Budziiiska-Tylicka from Poland.

Challenging Stereotypes About Women’s Movements in the Balkans

The activities of these women show that there was real progress in women’s rights in the Balkans, despite common beliefs that these regions had little to no change in women’s conditions. Eric Hobsbawm once wrote that in many parts of the world, including Eastern Europe, women’s rights were not improving. However, the work done by women in the Balkans contradicts this view Adventure Balkan Tours.

While the upper and middle classes in Southeastern Europe were smaller compared to the West, they still produced a significant number of women who became active in areas that were once only for men. These women were able to make an impact, and many became well-known leaders in their communities.

Notable Women Activists in the Balkans

There were many important women activists in the Balkans who made a difference. Some of these women include:

Vela Blagoeva, Anna Karima, Dimitrana Ivanova, and Elissaveta Karamichailova from Bulgaria

Callirhoe Parren and Avra Theodoropoulou from Greece

Calypso Botez and Alexandrina Cantacuzino from Romania

Fatma Aliye Hanum and Halide Edip Adivar from Turkey

Dragojla Jarnevic and Maria Juric-Zagorka from Croatia

Draga Dejanovic and Isidora Sekulic from Serbia

These women played key roles in advancing women’s rights and helped change the course of history in their countries.

Bulgarian Women's Movements and International Connections

The history of women’s movements in pre-communist Bulgaria follows patterns seen in many other countries. It shows that in “liberal democracy,” the social contract, or agreement about rights and responsibilities, was mostly made between men. This meant that modernity and the ideas of citizenship and civil society were often shaped by men’s experiences. As a result, women’s demands for equal rights and their actions were very similar worldwide, and they shared common goals with international women’s organizations.

Bulgarian Women in International Movements

Bulgarian activists participated in many international women’s congresses. While it’s not possible to mention every event, one is especially important for the Bulgarian women’s movement: the Congress of the International Alliance of Women for Suffrage and Equal Citizenship (IAWSEC), held in Istanbul from April 18-25, 1935. This congress was seen as significant because it was held in the east, symbolizing a growing connection between women’s movements in both the West and the East Adventure Balkan Tours.

Recognition for Dimitrana Ivanova

At the congress, Dimitrana Ivanova from the Bulgarian Women’s Union was elected to the Board of the IAWSEC. This was a major recognition for Bulgaria’s women’s movement. Ivanova had been nominated by Mrs. Theodoropoulou, the chairwoman of the Greek League for Women’s Rights, and a member of the IAWSEC board. This election helped the Bulgarian Women’s Union stay connected with the IAWSEC, and they were able to align their efforts with the international women’s movement on issues like political and economic equality, equal morality, and legal gender equality.

Dimitrana Ivanova’s Contributions and Achievements

In 1935 and 1937, Ivanova attended meetings of the IAWSEC Board in Amsterdam and Zurich. At the Amsterdam meeting, the Board decided to send Ivanova to two Balkan congresses about protecting children, held in Athens and Belgrade.

At the Zurich meeting, Ivanova proudly reported that Bulgarian women had won partial voting rights in January 1937. She highlighted that Bulgaria had granted women the vote before France, Yugoslavia, Quebec (Canada), and Switzerland. Ivanova was re-elected to the Board at the Copenhagen Congress of the IAWSEC in 1939. She was also elected president of the International Commission for the Protection of Motherhood, a part of the IAWSEC.

The Nationalist Women's Organization

Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland”

The Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland” was another women’s organization in Bulgaria, though it didn’t play a major role in the history of the women’s movement. Its name caused some complications in the international relations of the Bulgarian women’s movement during the inter-war period. This organization was right-wing and was created in 1926 by a small group of women as part of a men’s organization called Rodna Zashtita (National Defense). This men’s group was described as a patriotic organization focused on national preservation Bulgaria Holidays.

Goals of the Organization

The Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland” outlined its goals as follows:

Uplifting the Bulgarian spirit and pride.

Encouraging religious feelings.

Shaping Bulgarian women into patriots who love everything native and oppose harmful foreign influences.

Shaping Bulgarian women to be loving mothers, wives, daughters, and sisters who sincerely love everything Bulgarian.

Conflict with the Bulgarian Women’s Union

This ultra-nationalist group launched a campaign against the leader of the Bulgarian Women’s Union (BWU), Julia Malinova, claiming that because she was Jewish, she should not lead the country’s biggest national women’s organization. In order to protect the BWU, Malinova resigned. The old Bulgarian Women’s Union, founded in 1901, protested that this new organization had stolen its name, but their protests were unsuccessful. The nationalist group only agreed to change its name to Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland”.

Decline of the Organization

According to Dimitrana Ivanova’s memoirs, the “Love for the Motherland” Union attracted some members from the older Bulgarian Women’s Union during the 1930s. However, by the early 1940s, the organization had shrunk to just ten local branches.

Differences Between Communist and Social-Democratic Views on Women's Rights

The main difference between the communist and social-democratic views on women’s rights was not about the end goal, which was to liberate women from both material and moral authority and to create better living conditions for them. Both sides wanted the same ultimate goal, but they had different ideas on how to achieve it.

Different Methods of Achieving the Goal

Julia Sultanova, a key figure, explained the split between the two groups in the newspaper Blagodenstvie (Prosperity). She wrote that the communist women’s union believed in the idea of destroying the existing system and building a new life from its ruins. In contrast, the social-democratic women’s organizations wanted to transform society consciously by improving the current system and sharing its benefits with everyone Bulgaria Holidays.

Social-Democratic Women’s Union in 1922

In 1922, the Women’s Social-Democratic Union had 26 local groups and about 1,000 members from various backgrounds. Half of the members were housewives, a quarter were workers, and the rest were teachers, employees, craftswomen, saleswomen, and some doctors and pharmacists. One of the main goals of this union was to oppose both the communist women’s union and the bourgeois women’s union.

Advocating for Women’s Rights

The union’s newspapers, Blagodenstvie and later Nedovolnata (Unsatisfied), supported women’s civic and political rights. They believed that achieving these rights was crucial for the larger social-democratic goal of human liberation and global prosperity. They also insisted on equal pay for equal work, better health and hygiene measures, government support for the unemployed and poor, and good education and cultural facilities for everyone in Bulgaria.

The social-democrats were against some parts of the Civil Code and wanted to protect children and abolish prostitution.

Similar Goals to the “Bourgeois” Women’s Union

Although the social-democratic women’s group tried to separate themselves from the “separatist feminist organization”, it was clear that their goals and priorities were quite similar to those of the “bourgeois” Bulgarian Women’s Union.

Radicalization of the Bulgarian Women's Movement

In the early 1900s, socialist ideas and the establishment of the Socialist Women’s International in 1907 had a strong influence on the Bulgarian Women’s Union (BWU). This led to the creation of a new organization called Ravnopravie. From around 1908-1909, both of these organizations began focusing on the fight for women’s civil and political equality.

Feminism and the Middle-Class Focus

Like feminism in other countries, Bulgarian feminism mainly represented middle-class urban women. However, in Bulgaria, as in some other Eastern European countries, feminist activities also worked on the issues faced by peasant women.

Feminism Misunderstood

Many Bulgarian feminists, like feminists everywhere, feared their work would be misunderstood. In the 1920s, Dimitrana Ivanova, the chairwoman of the BWU, wrote articles in the newspaper Zhenski glas to explain what feminism really meant. She wanted to correct the misunderstanding that feminism was the same as the Bolshevik view of women’s rights. Ivanova argued that feminism was not about women fighting against their “natural duties” in family or society, nor was it about liberation for women who were part of a luxurious lifestyle or engaged in activities like sports, smoking, or drinking. She worked to fight anti-feminist ideas that were spreading in society Bulgaria Holidays.

Feminism and Modernization

The women’s movement in Bulgaria was a part of the larger modernization process in the country, which also included Europeanization. However, this process had both positive and negative aspects. While there were some improvements and progress, women’s rights were not well developed.

Women in Bulgaria had to fight for basic rights such as the right to education, civil and political rights, and access to professions. Despite being part of the national project for progress, women’s emancipation was poorly realized. Women’s citizenship came slowly, and their right to vote came decades later than men’s.

Gender Inequality and Traditional Roles

In Bulgaria, like in many other countries, there were laws that treated men and women differently. Even though the country claimed to represent all citizens, many women were excluded from the public sphere. The relationship between women and men remained rooted in the traditional gender roles of society.

Women in Bulgaria experienced tensions between tradition and modernity, urban and rural, and local and foreign ideas. These struggles made their fight for rights more complicated and difficult.

The 1919 Conference of Women Communists

The 1919 Conference of Women Communists

In 1919, a conference was held for women communists in Bulgaria. The women who attended were closely connected to the Bulgarian Communist Party (which was previously part of the “narrow” socialists). After this conference, the Women Communists started publishing two newspapers: Ravenstvo (Equality, 1919-1923) and Rabotnichka (Woman Worker). These newspapers spread Bolshevik ideas and supported the Communist Party’s activities Bulgaria Holidays.

Legal Trouble for Women Communists

During the 1920s, some women communists faced trials for their involvement in anti-state communist actions. However, many managed to escape to Soviet Russia, including well-known activists, such as the ones connected to Vela Blagoeva.

The Women’s Social-Democratic Union (1921)

Another important left-wing women’s group before World War II was the Women’s Social-Democratic Union, which was part of the international socialist movement. It was established in 1921 with the goal of educating working women both politically and civically. The organization aimed to research the living conditions of women and children and to attract and educate working women, preparing them for the realization of socialist ideals.

Leaders and Structure of the Women’s Social-Democratic Union

Most of the leaders in the Women’s Social-Democratic Union were the wives, sisters, or close relatives of prominent male activists from the Social-Democratic Party. These women included Yordanka Bozvelieva, Vera Sakuzova, Maria Dzhidrova, Yulia Sultanova, and Kina Konova. This pattern shows that, similar to other European countries, many women were drawn to socialist ideas through their male family members.

The Union’s Goals

The Women’s Social-Democratic Union was not independent. Its main goal was to support the work of the Workers’ Social-Democratic Party and help achieve its larger objectives.

Bulgarian Feminists and Their Struggles

During this time, Bulgarian feminists focused on several important issues. These included:

Peace and anti-war movements.

The sexual double standard, where men and women were judged differently for the same behaviors.

The abolition of prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation.

Equal pay for equal work.

Addressing women’s unpaid labor and housework.

Increasing women’s participation in political organizations.

Ensuring women’s access to positions of power.

The citizenship of married women and their rights.

Influence of the International Women’s Movement

Between the two World Wars, Bulgaria’s women’s movement followed the same goals and priorities as the international women’s movement. It mirrored the same features, challenges, and conflicts seen in global women’s organizations Bulgaria Holidays.

Socialists and Women’s Rights

Socialists, including women socialists, saw women’s activism as part of the larger socialist movement rather than as a separate cause. They believed that women’s oppression was caused by the capitalist system and saw socialism as the solution for all types of unfair systems, including those affecting women. They argued that women’s rights would be automatically achieved with the victory of the socialist revolution.

Because of this, socialists rejected bourgeois feminists who were fighting for gender equality within the current social system. In Bulgaria, this was particularly true for the orthodox or strict socialists.

The Division within Bulgarian Socialism

However, there was a reformist branch of socialism in Bulgaria (known as “broad” socialism), which became social democracy after World War I. This group developed a more active and visible women’s organization.

Leftist Women’s Groups like the Bolshevik-linked group and the social-democratic group distanced themselves from “bourgeois feminists”. They viewed feminist efforts as bourgeois ideas and refused to cooperate with bourgeois women’s groups, calling them “separatists”, meaning they were separate from the socialist movement.

The Nationalist Women's Organization

Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland”

The Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland” was another women’s organization in Bulgaria, though it didn’t play a major role in the history of the women’s movement. Its name caused some complications in the international relations of the Bulgarian women’s movement during the inter-war period. This organization was right-wing and was created in 1926 by a small group of women as part of a men’s organization called Rodna Zashtita (National Defense). This men’s group was described as a patriotic organization focused on national preservation Bulgaria Holidays.

Goals of the Organization

The Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland” outlined its goals as follows:

Uplifting the Bulgarian spirit and pride.

Encouraging religious feelings.

Shaping Bulgarian women into patriots who love everything native and oppose harmful foreign influences.

Shaping Bulgarian women to be loving mothers, wives, daughters, and sisters who sincerely love everything Bulgarian.

Conflict with the Bulgarian Women’s Union

This ultra-nationalist group launched a campaign against the leader of the Bulgarian Women’s Union (BWU), Julia Malinova, claiming that because she was Jewish, she should not lead the country’s biggest national women’s organization. In order to protect the BWU, Malinova resigned. The old Bulgarian Women’s Union, founded in 1901, protested that this new organization had stolen its name, but their protests were unsuccessful. The nationalist group only agreed to change its name to Bulgarian Women’s Union “Love for the Motherland”.

Decline of the Organization

According to Dimitrana Ivanova’s memoirs, the “Love for the Motherland” Union attracted some members from the older Bulgarian Women’s Union during the 1930s. However, by the early 1940s, the organization had shrunk to just ten local branches.

The Club of Bulgarian Women Writers

The Club of Bulgarian Women Writers was the third section of the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW), founded in 1930. About forty of the most well-known and respected female poets and writers were members. Some of its leaders were Evgenia Mars, a playwright and writer who created a literary salon, Elissaveta Bagryana, a famous modern poet from the inter-war period, and Fani Popova-Mutafova, a writer of popular historical novels and novellas, and a translator with traditional views on gender roles.

Education and Public Involvement

Most of the members of the Club had university education. They were well-known journalists, translators, and were active in the public sphere. Many were also part of charity and cultural societies. These women were united by the goal to gain a more important role in the male-dominated field of literature and to receive equal rights in publishing and payment Travel Bulgaria.

Activities and Achievements

To achieve their goals, the Club organized literary readings, lectures, celebrations, and book launches in the capital and other parts of the country. They published several collections of women’s writings and many articles in feminist newspapers. The Club also established connections with similar women’s societies in Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece, Hungary, and Slovakia. They exchanged translated works in these languages and collaborated with the PEN Club, whose Bulgarian section was led by Dora Gabe, a poetess and Club member.

Public Influence and Independence

The Club gained significant public prestige. Some members gave opinions on cultural legislation and worked with public organizations. It was financially stable and did not rely on the support of the BAUW. In 1934, the Club left the BAUW to continue as an independent organization. Unlike the situation with women artists, the professional activities of women writers were more widely accepted in Bulgarian society, and they did not need support from BAUW.

Women Artists and Architects in Bulgaria

Women artists and architects in Bulgaria had to work hard to be recognized. Like in many other countries, women studying at the Arts Academy were not initially allowed to take certain classes, such as nude-body drawing classes. However, this exclusion did not last as long in Bulgaria as it did in the West. By the late 1890s, after protests from some students, women were allowed to enroll in these classes.

The Women Artists Section

In 1928, the Women Artists Section of the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW) was created. Its goal was to help develop the professional careers of educated Bulgarian women artists. Although women had been allowed to study at the Art School since it opened in 1896, the artistic world in Bulgaria was still not open to them. While there were many female actresses and musicians, female artists were often not given the same recognition. Many women artists rarely exhibited their work in independent or international exhibitions. Some even worked privately at home, becoming parlor artists, creating art just for themselves Travel Bulgaria.

Challenges for Women Artists

After World War I, some Bulgarian women artists went abroad to specialize, participate in exhibitions, and join new artist societies. However, their work was still not recognized in Bulgaria. They were not admitted to art societies’ boards, were not hired as lecturers at the Academy of Fine Arts, and did not have their works bought at exhibitions.

Exhibitions and Criticism

Despite these challenges, the Women Artists Section included nearly all professionally active women artists in Bulgaria. Between 1928 and 1943, three generations of women artists participated in the annual BAUW exhibitions. These exhibitions attracted a lot of visitors and sparked debates about women’s creativity. However, many critics described women’s work as imitative of men’s art and of low quality.

Encouraging Young Artists and International Recognition

Despite the sexist criticism, the Women Artists Section encouraged young women to create art. They helped ill and poor women artists and even took Bulgarian women’s art abroad. In 1937 and 1938, BAUW held an exhibition in Belgrade and Zagreb, which was very successful. The Section also motivated women artists to hold independent exhibitions, both in Bulgaria and abroad, and to participate in general art exhibitions.

Socialist Ideas and Women’s Liberation in Bulgaria

By the late 1880s and early 1890s, socialist ideas had spread to Bulgaria. Bulgarian socialists, like others around the world, were among the first to support the cause of women’s liberation.

Socialist Influence on Women’s Rights

The Marxist-socialist ideas about women’s rights were widely spread through socialist newspapers and magazines, such as Suvremenen Pokazatel (Contemporary Barometer), Novo Vreme (New Times), and the women’s socialist journal Zhenski trud (Women’s Labor). These publications played a big role in pushing for women’s emancipation.

Socialists vs. Feminists

From the start of the Bulgarian Women’s Union in 1901, socialists were critical of feminists, calling them “bourgeois” (wealthy and upper-class). They followed the ideas of the Second International Working Men’s Association, which believed that women from different social classes could not unite for a common cause. According to socialist beliefs, women’s rights could only be achieved after the success of the socialist revolution Travel Bulgaria.

Separation of Socialist Women from the Women’s Union

Although Vela Blagoeva (1858-1921) and other women socialists initially joined the Bulgarian Women’s Union, they later followed the party line. They began criticizing feminists, accusing them of being “separatists.” In 1903, socialist women broke away from the Women’s Union because they did not agree with its stance of ignoring class differences. This split had already happened earlier that year in the male socialist movement.

Vela Blagoeva’s Role in Women’s Socialist Movement

Later, Vela Blagoeva created a journal called Zhenski Trud and worked on building a social-democratic women’s organization. In early 1905, she formed the first educational social-democratic group for women workers in Sofia. She also organized the first conference for socialist women in August 1905. This caused a big debate in socialist publications. Some believed it was a separatist women’s organization that could create division in the workers’ movement.

Socialist Divide on Women’s Rights

There were two main groups of socialists: the “narrow” socialists, led by Dimitar Blagoev (Vela Blagoeva’s husband), who opposed the idea of a neutral women’s union, and the “broad” socialists, who were in favor of creating an independent women’s organization. The attempt to form a separate women’s social-democratic group failed at the time, but it encouraged the Bulgarian Women’s Union to work harder at uniting all women activists in the country.

The Founding of Women’s Socialist Clubs

In August 1914, Vela Blagoeva led the Founding Conference of Women’s Socialist Clubs in Bulgaria, following instructions from the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Workers Social-Democratic Party. This group, led by Tina Kirkova (1914-1923), worked to create a unified women’s socialist movement in Bulgaria.

The Women Students Section of BAUW

The Women Students Section was the fourth section of the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW), created in 1937. It was formed in response to the growing number of female law students joining the BAUW. The Association had been observing these students for many years and, through a special commission, helped create a girls’ hostel in the capital in 1939.

Conflict with the Communist Women’s Movement

However, the members of the Women Students Section soon found themselves in competition with the Communist women’s movement, which wanted to take over the Section. This conflict likely led to the Section’s short existence, as it lasted only until 1945. During this time, the Section mainly focused on protesting the restrictions placed on women’s admission to some faculties at Sofia University. These restrictions were put in place by the university under pressure from the government between 1939 and 1941 Travel Bulgaria.

Communist Control Over Women’s Organizations

In September 1944, key political leaders, including Tsola Dragoycheva from the Fatherland Front and Georgi Dimitrov from the Communist Party, decided that women’s organizations in Bulgaria needed to become part of the state structure. As a result, all women’s organizations, including the BAUW, were placed under the control of two Zhenski otdeli (women’s departments) controlled by the communists.

Women members of the Communist Party and other coalition parties were ordered to replace the leadership of all feminist organizations, including the BAUW. As a result, in November 1944, the BAUW quickly changed its leadership.

Decline of the BAUW

After the leadership change, the BAUW’s activities became more political. Meetings that had once focused on feminist issues turned into propaganda sessions, where leading women communists spoke about topics such as Stalin, women in science in the USSR, and other political subjects. These meetings had very few attendees and were closely monitored by the Political Police, who collected personal information about the members.

The End of BAUW

The decline continued, and in 1948, the Bulgarian government confiscated the property of the BAUW, scattered its archives, and ended its organizational activities. By the middle of 1950, the BAUW was officially closed. Only older members of the organization informally discussed the idea of turning the BAUW into a Women’s Section within the Bulgarian Academy of Science, but this idea never came to fruition.

Women's Rights and Political Feminism in Bulgaria

The Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW) began to focus on the idea that if women became full citizens, they could hold positions in the government and the legislature. This idea added another important goal to the political feminism agenda of the BAUW. Before 1919, there were smaller organizations, such as the Equal Rights Union (Ravnopravie) and the Bulgarian Women’s Union, that also worked for women’s rights.

Criticism of the Electoral Laws

The Lawyers’ Section of the BAUW strongly criticized the electoral laws of the authoritarian regime (1937-1938), which allowed some women to vote, but only if they were “legally married mothers.” The Lawyers’ Section argued that it was unfair to link a woman’s ability to vote to her marital status or whether she had children. They also pointed out that this law unfairly excluded women who were unmarried, childless, or mothers who adopted children. Despite these criticisms, the laws were enforced, but they still did not allow women, including married women, to work as lawyers Travel Bulgaria.

Challenges Faced by Women Lawyers

For example, in 1938, the Supreme Council of Lawyers and the Supreme Cassation Court took away the permission that allowed Dr. Vera Zlatareva to work as a lawyer. Dr. Zlatareva was the Secretary of the Lawyers’ Section and had been granted this permission by the Sofia Council of Lawyers. The Supreme Council claimed that she could not work because of her connection to the banned Communist Party. In the next year, the Police removed her from the Lawyers’ Section, even though she had the professional rights to continue working.

Situation of Women Lawyers Before World War II

By the time World War II began, Bulgaria and Albania were the only countries in the Balkans where female law graduates were not allowed to serve as judges or defense lawyers. Women in other countries, such as Greece (1926), Yugoslavia (1927), Turkey (1928), and Romania (1929), had already been granted these rights.

Women Artists and Architects in Bulgaria

Women artists and architects in Bulgaria had to work hard to be recognized. Like in many other countries, women studying at the Arts Academy were not initially allowed to take certain classes, such as nude-body drawing classes. However, this exclusion did not last as long in Bulgaria as it did in the West. By the late 1890s, after protests from some students, women were allowed to enroll in these classes.

The Women Artists Section

In 1928, the Women Artists Section of the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW) was created. Its goal was to help develop the professional careers of educated Bulgarian women artists. Although women had been allowed to study at the Art School since it opened in 1896, the artistic world in Bulgaria was still not open to them. While there were many female actresses and musicians, female artists were often not given the same recognition. Many women artists rarely exhibited their work in independent or international exhibitions. Some even worked privately at home, becoming parlor artists, creating art just for themselves Travel Bulgaria.

Challenges for Women Artists

After World War I, some Bulgarian women artists went abroad to specialize, participate in exhibitions, and join new artist societies. However, their work was still not recognized in Bulgaria. They were not admitted to art societies’ boards, were not hired as lecturers at the Academy of Fine Arts, and did not have their works bought at exhibitions.

Exhibitions and Criticism

Despite these challenges, the Women Artists Section included nearly all professionally active women artists in Bulgaria. Between 1928 and 1943, three generations of women artists participated in the annual BAUW exhibitions. These exhibitions attracted a lot of visitors and sparked debates about women’s creativity. However, many critics described women’s work as imitative of men’s art and of low quality.

Encouraging Young Artists and International Recognition

Despite the sexist criticism, the Women Artists Section encouraged young women to create art. They helped ill and poor women artists and even took Bulgarian women’s art abroad. In 1937 and 1938, BAUW held an exhibition in Belgrade and Zagreb, which was very successful. The Section also motivated women artists to hold independent exhibitions, both in Bulgaria and abroad, and to participate in general art exhibitions.

Visit of Key Figures to Bulgaria (1926)

In 1926, Ellen Gleditsch, the Chairwoman of the International Federation of University Women, along with Ms. Klem and Ekaterina Zlatoustova, visited Bulgaria. Zlatoustova was an important figure, having worked in Italy as a delegate in the Italian-Bulgarian Mixed Arbitration Court in Rome. She was also elected to the board of the International Federation of Women Jurists in 1936 and nominated to the Committee on the Status of Women with the League of Nations in 1938.

Leadership of the Lawyers’ Section

The Lawyers’ Section of the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW) had several important leaders. The third chairwoman of this section was Fany Kesyakova, a Bulgarian female jurist. She graduated in law from Sofia University and worked as a secretary in private companies and foreign diplomatic missions.

Focus on Professional Rights of Women Jurists

The main goal of the Lawyers’ Section was to fight for the professional and political rights of Bulgarian women jurists. Dimitrana Ivanova, the leader of the Bulgarian Women’s Union in the inter-war period, and Vera Zlatareva, a leader of the Lawyers’ Section, were key figures in the fight for women’s inclusion in the legal profession. Their efforts were great examples of women’s activism Holidays Bulgaria.

In 1929, the International Federation of Women Jurists began to support these women’s efforts. However, despite the support, the Federation was unable to intervene because the issue was considered a constitutional law problem, not a labor issue, as argued by powerful male politicians of the time.

Legal Struggles and Women’s Suffrage

At first, the Lawyers’ Section focused on a legal battle against the Lawyers’ Act and tried to gain political support for changing the Legal Structure Act. However, after the authoritarian regime took power in 1934, the Ministers of Justice refused to discuss this issue with the BAUW. As a result, the section shifted its focus to another key goal: demanding women’s suffrage.

Formation of the Association of Bulgarian Women University Graduates

Bulgarian women who had completed university education formed their own organization called the Association of Bulgarian Women University Graduates (ABWUG), also known as the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW). The idea to create this organization came from Ekaterina Zlatoustova (1881-1952). She had studied history in Russia and worked as a secondary school teacher and later as a senior officer in the Ministry of Education.

The BAUW was founded on May 29, 1924. The members of the association came from various generations and had different views on feminism, but most of them held liberal ideas. The founding members were mainly teachers, professors at Sofia University, doctors, and lawyers, representing the intellectual and professional elite in Sofia.

Joining the International Federation of University Women (IFUW)

On July 28, 1925, the BAUW became a member of the International Federation of University Women (IFUW). The IFUW had been established in New York in 1919 as part of organizations linked to the League of Nations. It later became a platform for women university graduates who wanted further education and career opportunities. The IFUW provided members with travel grants and scholarships for scientific research Holidays Bulgaria.

Leadership and Growth of the BAUW

The leadership of the BAUW remained almost the same for 28 years. They worked to maintain a balance among different professions and generations within the organization. Over time, four sections were created within the BAUW:

Women Lawyers

Women Artists

Women Writers

Women Students

The BAUW followed the Anglo-American model, first forming a national organization and then developing sections for different professional groups.

Membership and Education Background

The BAUW grew to include several hundred women. About 15% of the members had received their education abroad, mostly in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria-Hungary.

Education and Membership of the BAUW

Most members of the BAUW received their education in Bulgaria at institutions like Sofia University, the Arts Academy, or the Music Academy. One third of the members held doctoral degrees, and most were proficient in foreign languages, maintaining strong connections with women activists and intellectuals abroad. About 60% of the members were married, while the rest were either single, widowed, or divorced.

The association aimed to create better opportunities for professional women in Bulgaria. Its members participated in international events, such as the International Federation of Women with University Education. For example, in July 1926, Zhivka Dragneva attended the Fourth Congress of the Federation in Amsterdam as a delegate. In 1926, members of the Australian Association of Women with University Education visited Bulgaria, and in 1928, Prof. Gledich, the chairwoman of the International Federation of University Women, visited Bulgaria and met with professors at Sofia University and Ministry of Education officials Holidays Bulgaria.

Formation of the Lawyers’ Section

The first section of the BAUW, the Lawyers’ Section, was created in 1928. It became the largest group within the association, with about 150 members during the 1940s. The section focused on the challenges women faced in pursuing a career in law. Women were allowed to study law at Sofia University starting in the academic year 1902/1903, with 507 women graduating by 1946. However, despite this, women lawyers were not permitted to serve as defense lawyers or judges before the communist regime came to power in 1945. This restriction was not because of constitutional law or court rulings, but because of patriarchal traditions and male-dominated interests.

The Lawyers’ Section was led by respected jurists who were recognized internationally. Key figures included Maria Girginova, who was elected in 1930 to the Council of the International Federation of Women Magistrates, and Velisslava Radulova, who specialized in commercial law.

Bulgarian Women Join International Women's Movements

In 1908, Bulgarian women became part of the international women’s movements for the first time. This was thanks to Bulgarian representatives, Zheni Bozhilova-Pateva and Irina Sokerova, who attended the congresses of two major organizations: the International Alliance of Women (IAW) in Amsterdam and the International Council of Women (ICW) in Geneva. Bulgaria was the first country from Southeastern Europe to join these global movements.

Other Southeastern European Countries Join Later

Following Bulgaria’s lead, other countries in the region joined the ICW and IAW:

Greece joined the ICW in 1908.

Serbia joined the ICW in 1911.

Romania joined the ICW in 1921 Holidays Bulgaria.

Serbia joined the IAW (later known as the International Women’s Suffrage Alliance) in 1911.

Greece joined the IAW in 1920.

Romania joined the IAW in 1921.

Turkey joined the IAW in 1926.

Joining the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom

In 1919, Bulgarian women became members of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), which had been founded in The Hague in 1915. Greece joined the WILPF in 1921, and Yugoslavia joined in 1934. The Bulgarian section of the WILPF was led by Ekaterina Karavelova (1860-1947), Lidya Shishmanova (1866-1937), and Vassilka Kerteva (1894-1967). These women attended various WILPF congresses in cities like Washington, Dublin, and Prague, and they also participated in summer schools organized by the League.

Hosting the WILPF Summer School in Bulgaria

From August 25 to September 10, 1930, Karavelova and Kerteva hosted a WILPF Summer School in Bulgaria. This event helped raise awareness and support for women’s peace efforts in the country.

Support for the Defense of Jews in Germany

In 1933, during the third general meeting of the Bulgarian Section of the WILPF, a committee was formed to defend Jews in Germany. This committee faced some criticism in the media, with some newspapers arguing that Bulgaria should not interfere with the internal matters of “Great Germany.” Despite this, the women of the WILPF continued their efforts to support human rights and peace in Europe.

The Role of Women's Organizations in the Suffrage Movement

The two main organizations pushing for women’s right to vote were the Union Ravnopravie (a more left-wing group) and the Bulgarian Women’s Union. These groups became the driving force behind the suffrage movement in Bulgaria.

Laws vs. Traditions: Why Women’s Suffrage Took Time

Even though Bulgarian women were not specifically banned from voting by the country’s constitution and electoral laws, patriarchal customs and traditions treated only men as citizens. While all men, including minority groups, were allowed to vote, women were still excluded because of traditional views about their role in society. Changing traditions was harder than changing laws Holidays Bulgaria.

Women’s Vote Granted in 1937

The demand for women’s suffrage remained unresolved for a long time. It wasn’t until 1937 that women were given the right to vote, but only for local elections and only for married women. Later, women who were married, divorced, or widowed were allowed to vote in parliamentary elections, but single adult women were still excluded. Because of the traditional pattern of early marriage in Bulgaria, most women were able to vote. However, the key issue was that women’s political rights were tied to their relationships with men, not their individual status.

Dependence on Men for Voting Rights

The new law made women voters, but only as long as they were linked to a man (either their husband, former husband, or deceased husband). This meant women were not seen as individual citizens but as dependents of men. Family life was seen as proof of whether a woman could be trusted with political rights. Additionally, the new law gave women the right to vote, but not to stand for election (so they had only active voting rights).

The Situation in Bulgaria Compared to Other Countries

The situation for women’s suffrage in Bulgaria was similar to that in countries like France and Switzerland, where men had the right to vote earlier. In Germany and Britain, both men and women faced barriers to voting, but once universal male suffrage was granted, women were quickly given the right to vote as well.