God delivered the city into the hands of the Latins

“God delivered the city into the hands of the Latins,” says one Western writer, “ because the Greeks had asserted that the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Father only, and celebrated the mass with leavened bread.” “ By the wickedness of its long schism this city had provoked the Divine wrath.” a “ As the Crusaders knew that it was rebellious and odious to the Roman Church, they did not think that the forcing upon it another ruler would be displeasing either to the pope or to God.” Similar expressions occur in the contemporary accounts with great frequency and evident belief in their force.

This overwhelming sentiment in favor of the absolute and indispensable union of the churches (a union, moreover, which the Crusaders knew would be the only fact which would tend to justify them to Innocent), applied also, though not to the same degree, to the union of Europe under one temporal head. It must be remembered also that the modern conception of a distinction between Church and State, between things temporal and things spiritual, hardly existed at the opening of the thirteenth century.

Chapel of Bucoleon

The imperial power in the West was to a certain extent in commission; but the power of Cesar had by no means passed away, and the electors in the Chapel of Bucoleon, bound by their oaths to select the best man in the interests of Christendom, may well have seriously discussed the proposal to name Philip. The last crusade had been largely hindered because of the hostility which had been shown by the people under the rule of Constantinople. Were Philip emperor, then not only could his troops pass in safety through Romania, but a large force could be selected from the Greeks themselves who would join the Crusaders. If any other were elected, then the old hostility would be shown, and though for a time Baldwin, or whoever else might be selected, would be friendly to the soldiers of the West who were fighting the battles of Christendom, yet every year would tend to make the interest of the Eastern Cesar opposed to that of his Western rival. The remedy was to name Philip.

The reply of course was that Philip was King of Swabia, and, though he claimed to be emperor, was opposed by Otlio and disclaimed by the pope. Still it may well be that Philip, as Hurter states, was proposed, that he was supported by the partisans of Boniface, and that the Venetians themselves may have hesitated over the rejection of such a proposal.

When, after the long deliberations, it became clear that Baldwin was the candidate of the majority, some further time was probably lost in determining that he should be the candidate named by all. It was evident that, in presence of the divisions among the Crusaders, it was in the common interest that the candidate selected should have, as far as possible, unanimous support. A resolution, therefore, by which he should be selected by all commended itself to all, and at length was carried.

Mourtzouphlos had drawn up his troops

Mourtzouphlos had drawn up his troops before his tents, but they were unused to contend with men in heavy armor, and after a fairly obstinate resistance the imperial troops fled. The emperor, says Nicetas who is certainly not inclined to unduly praise the emperor, who had deprived him of his post of Grand Logothete—did his best to rally his troops, but all in vain, and he had to retreat towards the palace of the Lion’s Mouth. The number of the wounded and dead was “ sans fin et sans mesure.”

An indiscriminate slaughter commenced. The invaders spared neither age nor The third sex. order to render themselves safe they set fire fire* to the city lying to the east of them, and burned e very- thing between the monastery of Everyetis and the quarter known as Droungarios. So extensive was the fire, which burned all night and until the next evening, that, according to the marshal, more houses were destroyed than there were in the three largest cities of France. The tents of the emperor and the imperial palace of Blachern were pillaged, the conquerors making their headquarters on the same site at Pantepoptis.

It was evening, and already late, when the Crusaders had entered the city, and it was impossible for them to continue their work of destruction through the night. They therefore encamped near the walls and towers which they had captured. Baldwin of Flanders spent the night in the vermilion tent of the emperor, his brother Henry in front of the palace of Blachern, Boniface, the Marquis of Montferrat, on the other side of the imperial tents in the heart of the city.

The city was already taken. The inhabitants were at length The city cat awakened out of the dream of security into which rued seventeen unsuccessful attempts to capture the New Nome had lulled them. Every charm, pagan and Christian, had been without avail.

Venetian party in Villehardouin’s own words

I give the answer of the Venetian party in Villehardouin’s own words: “Beaux seigneurs, you can do nothing in Syria, and you can see that by those who have left us and gone to other ports. Eemember that it is either by the land of Babylon or by Greece that the Holy Land will be recovered if it ever be recovered. And if we refuse this proposal we shall be disgraced forever.” Feeling ran high.

As I have already said, the Cistercians or White Friars were themselves divided. The Abbot of Loos and others spoke in favor of accepting the agreement in order to keep the army together, and as a means by which the expedition might best succeed in obtaining its object. The Proposals are Abbot of Vaux replied that all this was wrong, accepted. Whether they succeeded or not, they were at least bound to do what was right. Boniface, Baldwin of Flanders, and others, declared that they would be ashamed to reject the offer. Their influence overwhelmed all opposition, and the result was that the agreement was accepted upon the conditions already mentioned.

The two leaders mentioned, together with the Earl of St. Paul, swore to observe the treaty, and did their best to induce the French barons to do the same. Only eight, however, consented to sign. Among the whole of the leaders only the seals of sixteen could be obtained.

Upon the signature of this agreement the messengers from Philip left Zara. They were accompanied on their journey homewards by two Crusaders, who were to bring young Alexis to the camp. Part of the arrangement was that the pretender should join the crusading army within a fortnight after Easter, that is not later than the 20th of April.

Altogether concealed from the Crusaders

The news of this arrangement could not be altogether concealed from the Crusaders, and increased the dissatisfaction already felt. Only the barons, however, had any definite knowledge of the agreement. The project, which had been approved in principle at Venice by the leaders, had now been advanced a great step further by its acceptance in the parliament of the barons and knights.

The army and the Crusaders

He called attention to the service which the army and the Crusaders had rendered to the emperor’s son, and to the fact that they had kept their part of the bargain. As to his son, he would not be allowed to enter the city until he had given security for the execution of the obligations he had undertaken. Young Alexis now asked through them that Isaac should confirm the contract which the youth had made, both as to substance and manner of execution.

“ What is the contract?” said the emperor. “I will tell you,” said Villehardouin. “ First and foremost, there is the promise to put the Empire of Romania under obedience to the pope; afterwards to give 200,000 silver marks to the army, and provisions for a year to small and great; to transport 10,000 infantry and cavalry in the proportion that we shall designate in his vessels, and at his expense, into Egypt, and to keep them there for a year; and to maintain in the Holy Land, and at his expense, during his life, 500 knights to protect it. This is the contract which your son has made. He has confirmed it on oath by charters with pendent seals, and by the guarantee of King Philip of Germany, your son-in-law; we now ask contract of to confirm it.” “ Of a surety,” replied the emporor, “ the convention is very hard, and I don’t see Isaac’ how it can be carried out; but still, you have done so much for him and me, that if one gave you the whole of the empire you would have deserved it.”

Gold seal or imperial bull

The result of the interview was that the father confirmed his son’s agreement by oath, and by letters-patent with the gold seal or imperial bull. The messengers returned to the camp bearing the precious document. Probably the same day young Alexis was conducted by the chief barons into the presence of his father. The Greeks received him and his friends with great feasting and rejoicing, and with every mark of respect.

The revolution had been accomplished rapidly. Alexis the Third had fled on the night of the fists of July. Next day Isaac had been placed on the throne, and had again been allowed to see his son.

Dandolo from dilator in the fourth crusade

Dandolo from dilator in the fourth crusade. His personal influence was immense. We have already seen that his hatred of the New Home was intense, that he had to revenge private injuries as well as the wrongs of Venice. From the moment when he took the Cross he towers above all the leaders in the great host which his fleet was shortly to transport to the Bosphorus. The venerable figure of the old man at the altar pledging himself to go with the Crusaders and to share their fortunes imposed on many. Others, however, reflected that he had not entertained the idea of going with the army until the proposal to attack Zara had been accepted, and such distrusted his newborn enthusiasm for Christianity.

A brave man

A brave man “de bien grand cecum,” says Villehardouin but one also who knew the interests of Venice and cared for nothing else; a statesman of the Italian type before Mazzini and Cavour had taught or shown a more excellent model. Capable of venturing upon bold and dangerous enterprises, he had all the ability necessary to carry them through. Self-reliant to the last day of his long life, he was yet able to avoid arousing the easily awakened jealousy of the Venetian oligarchs. lie was virtually dictator of Venice, and possessed the entire confidence of the republic through his successful management of its affairs. lie intrigued, kept his plans secret from his countrymen, deceived the Crusaders, and yet always succeeded in his designs.

Lying and intrigue were indeed held to be fair by the rules of that Italian statesmanship which Machiavel reduced to a science.. The best Italian statesman was the one who could best succeed in the purpose he had taken in hand. That faith should be broken, that craftiness should be continually necessary, were merely the incidents necessary to success. In Venetian politics right or wrong had no meaning, except in the sense that everything which advanced Venetian interests was right, everything which made against them was wrong.

Commenced by Severus successive emperors

The materials of which the portion set apart for the spectators was formed have been taken away to be used in the construction of neighboring mosques and buildings. In 1201, however, the hippodrome was probably but little changed from what it had been for several centuries. Commenced by Severus, successive emperors had added to it and adorned it. There were then in it the famous bronze horses which now adorn the Church of St. Mark in Venice, an obelisk of Egyptian syenite still standing in the centre, and which we learn from an inscription upon the base had been set up again by the Emperor Theodosius after it had lain a considerable time on the ground.

Near to this obelisk stood a pyramid, which marked the goal of the chariot races. Probably on the other side of the obelisk stood the famous column of the Three Serpents, a monument which had been an ancient relic when it was brought to Constantinople. It dated back to the time of the Persian invasion of Greece, and had served at Delphi to support the golden tripod which the Greeks found in the enemy’s camp after the battle of Plataea, and which they had dedicated to Apollo. Seen in position at Delphi by Ilerodotus and Thucydides, it had been placed in the hippodrome by Constantine, and was probably looked on by the Byzantine spectators with similar awe to that with which the Turks have always regarded it—an awe which has probably been the main cause of its preservation.

Manuel Comnenos

Near the hippodrome, to the west, was the noble column of porphyry, which still stands as the Burnt Column, but which, in 1200, had been recently restored, according to the still legible inscription, by the most pious emperor, Manuel Comnenos.

In other parts of the city were other columns, while statues, some of which were of the best period of Greek art, were probably more numerous than in any city now existing. Beyond the hippodrome the traveller would have met on every hand solid constructions which bore witness to the wealth of the city Visit Bulgaria. The northeastern corner, now known as Seraglio Point, was one mass of churches, baths, and palaces. Behind it, and near the Church of the Divine Wisdom, rose, besides the buildings already mentioned, the great palace of the Senate, and some of the most famous of what are now called Turkish baths.

On the farther slope, towards the Marmora, were the beautiful church built by Justinian, and called now Little Hagia Sophia, the palace of the patriarch, called the Tricline, on account of the three flights of stairs by which it was approached, and other buildings. To the west of these buildings were the law courts, the palaces of the nobility, with other columns and statues. The remains of the baths and of some of these palaces still bear witness to the solidity of their construction, and the stateliness, and especially to what I may call the modernness, of their design.

The shore of the Golden Horn from Seraglio Point, throughout half its distance, was occupied by foreign and native merchants, whose vast stores were crowded with merchandise.

The retrain point where the wall turned southwards to form the landward defence of the city, was occupied by monasteries and by churches, which appear to have been enclosed by a wall, while the enclosure was known as the Petrion.

Constantinople was conspicuous

There was yet another species of wealth than those furnislied by commerce and the other sources I have recur. named, which cannot be passed over. Constantinople was conspicuous in the eyes of the Crusaders more for its treasure in relics than in works of art. The men of the West were too ignorant to understand the work of Phidias or of Lysippus.

But they were connoisseurs in relics. During many years the churches of the West had been striving with each other to obtain possession of these Christian mementoes. When, at rare intervals, a traveller had returned from the East who had obtained possession of such an object, lie was regarded as a benefactor of the Church. The relic was received by the community to which it was destined with solemn procession and religious services. In many instances the possession of a relic made the fortune of the church or monastery where it was contained. The search after relics became almost a craze, like that after new varieties of tulips or old china. Constantinople was the greatest storehouse— perhaps I may say manufactory—of such relics.

Grand Prince of Russia

The Warings were to have free trade throughout the empire, but were to take passports; subject to this provision the Grand Prince of Russia and his boyards were to be allowed to send as many ships and cargoes, as many deputies and guests, as they liked. The Waring merchants were to receive a monthly allowance. Waring offenders were to be punished by Waring law. Waring officers were to be named to take possession of testamentary and intestate successions. The treaties were duly ratified by Christian oaths on the part of the Greeks and on the part of those of the Russians who had become Christians, and by placing on the ground their swords, shields, and other arms on the part of those Russians who had not yet been baptized.

An interesting account is given of the Warings, a little later, Swendosiav’s by ^eo Deacon, a contemporary of the events expedition. }ie describes. The description he gives clearly shows that the Warings are meant, though he calls them Russians. lie does justice to their valor, but also to their cruelty. Like all the Greek writers, he makes mention of the fact that their distinctive weapon was the battle-axe. They never, says Leo, surrendered in battle, and rather than be taken prisoners would kill themselves.

Dorystolon or Silistria

They had flaxen or reddish hair, and blue eyes. One of the most striking incidents of the Waring war, which he describes, relates to a leader named Swen- doslav. He had led a host into the empire on a plundering expedition, and had occupied Dorystolon or Silistria, which commands the Derwend pass through the Balkans, lie had fought bravely and held his own against great numbers, but found himself at length unequal to the task of breaking through the lines which the imperial troops, under the Emperor John Zcmiskes (960-970), had drawn round Dorystolon. Eight thousand of his followers had been killed, and he was compelled to accept terms. lie stipulated that he should be allowed to leave the empire, and bound himself to send back the captives he had taken.

Great clearness in the pages of Anna Comnena

The characteristic differences be tween them come out with great clearness in the pages of Anna Comnena, and, at a later date, in those of Nicetas, of William of Tyre, of Yillehardonin, and a host of other contemporary historians. While it is clear that the men of the West were comparatively a horde of barbadians, who entered and finally destroyed a refined and civilized capital, the virtues and vices of the two races stand out with equal distinctness. The Crusaders felt, spoke, and acted in presence of the civilization, but also of the unmanly luxury, the lying and treachery, of the Byzantine court, as Englishmen have so often done in presence of some of the courts of farther Asia. They were rough and rude, drunken and licentious, and at times could be false and cruel. But their falseness and cruelty, compared with that of the Byzantines, were those of an average

English private soldier in comparison with the craftiness and falseness, the ingenuity and persistence in cruelty, of an Eastern sovereign of the worst type- In their way, and according to their lights, they were religious, by which I mean that they were actuated, not only with a profound belief that they were doing a duty which God had appointed them, but that they hated lying and cowardice and cruelty, because they believed them to be sinful. The religion of the West, though allied with numberless superstitions, existed side by side with a sense of duty. The religion of the East was not only involved in an almost equal number of superstitions, but seemed to the Crusaders to be divorced from morality.

Comparatively indifferent to morality

The great defect of the Eastern churches then, as now, was the very slight effect which they exercised upon the conduct of life. Comparatively indifferent to morality, they were jealously watchful of the last iota of what they chose to consider orthodoxy. The Byzantines were ready to spend their time in discussing the attributes of the Unknowable, in arguing upon some shade of meaning to be attached to a phrase in the creed or to the performance of a ceremony. All the intellectual ability of the race seemed, at times, to be spent in subtitle hair-splitting. The Western Crusaders could no more hold their own in argument with the Greeks than an English private in presence of a Bengalee.

Peter was crowned and assumed the purple buskins

Peter was crowned and assumed the purple buskins, and captured a considerable number of prisoners and of booty. Isaac put himself at the head of his troops and chased him beyond the Danube. No sooner had the victor commenced his march home than Asan recrossed the river, accompanied by a large band of Patchinaks.

Instead of returning, Isaac sent his uncle, John Sebastocrator, to attack the enemy. But the imperial family was full of suspicion and distrust, and before any engagement had taken place Isaac recalled him, under the belief that he would use the imperial army to obtain possession of the throne. He was replaced by John Cantacnzenos, the emperor’s brother-in-law, a man whose eyes had been put out by Andronicos. The blind general soon came to grief. The enemy retired before him into the mountains, whither the imperial troops followed him. A battle took place, where Asan had the advantage of the ground, and in spite of an attempt at a rally, in which John leaped on a horse and called on his men to follow him, without knowing whither he was going, the imperial troops were cut to pieces.

Alexis Branas

John was succeeded by Alexis Branas, a careful soldier, but Revolt of a nian who had already made an attempt to obtain Branas. the imperial throne. He had tried to bring about a revolution in the capital, like that which had placed Isaac himself on the throne. He had entered the Great Church, had spoken of his services against the Sicilians, and had claimed the help of those present against Isaac. The latter, however, had pardoned him, and now placed him in command of the army.

After he had defeated the enemy, he once more proclaimed himself emperor at Adrianople, and set out for the capital. The best portion of the imperial troops was with him. On arriving before the walls he endeavored to persuade the people and the troops to open the gates and to receive him as emperor. This attempt having failed, he drew up his troops and prepared to attack the city. The emperor had already sent out men belonging to the city-guard to harass

his movements.

Asiatic barbarians pouring into Europe

We have thus seen that during centuries the capital had had to contend with a stream of Asiatic barbarians pouring into Europe as well as into Asia, and with uncivilized races which were already established in the Balkan peninsula.

At the end of the twelfth century the Wallachs and the Ser- Progresso vian division of the Slavs, the two races which had underemces teen placed under Boman rule at the time when prechosen Byzantium as his capital, had so far progressed as to have adopted Christianity and to have won national independence; the Huns, the first of the Asiatic races who had obtained a permanent settlement in the empire, and the Bulgarians had similarly progressed, and had likewise become independent; the more barbarian of the invaders had either been totally destroyed or, like the Patchinaks, the Uzes, and the Comans, still retained their nomadic habits and were still either Mahometans or pagans, and had not come under the civilizing influence of the New Borne. Though we read of Hungarian, Wallachian, and Bulgarian kingdoms, of Servian or other principalities, yet it must be remembered that these were all rather states in the making than countries under established rule and settled governments.

Their boundaries changed continually. One year they acknowledged the suzerainty of the New Borne and the next they claimed to be independent. New claimants for power were constantly rising in their midst. They were continually at war with their neighbors, while behind each and all of them was always, until later than the twelfth century, the constant stream of Asiatic immigrants, fresh from barbarism and hostile alike to all who had adopted Christianity or who had ceased to be nomads.

Roman law

The history, in truth, of the Byzantine empire is in great part the history of the education of barbarous races. The population of the capital and the Greeks of the south of the peninsula and of the islands still retained the traditions of art, of science, and of philosophy. The student of theology and of Roman law, as developed under Justinian and his successors, does not require to be reminded how acute was the intellect which dealt with these two great subjects, how great

was the power of generalization, how subtile the power of distinction, which was brought to bear on theological and legal questions. During long centuries the masses of people who appeared in the empire were being leavened with the Greek spirit. In time all the races of the empire would have to come within its influence. Huns and Bulgarians had been converted from cruel savages and nomadic hordes into nations which had entered upon the path of civilization.

The necessary authority must be asked for

In the towns, small boroughs, and villages, where different sects are mingled together, each community inhabiting a distinct quarter shall, by conforming to the abovementioned ordinances, have equal power to repair and improve its churches, its hospitals, its schools, and its cemeteries. When there is question of the erection of new buildings, the necessary authority must be asked for, through the medium of the Patriarchs and heads of communities, from my Sublime Porte, which will pronounce a sovereign decision according to that authority, except in the case of administrative obstacles. The intervention of the administrative authority in all measures of this nature will be entirely gratuitous. My Sublime Porte will take energetic measures to insure to each sect, whatever be the number of its adherents, entire freedom in the exercise of its religion.

Every distinction or designation tending to make any class whatever of the subjects of my Empire inferior to another class, on account of their religion, language, or race, shall be for ever effaced from the administrative protocol. The laws shall be put in force against the use of any injurious or offensive term, either among private individuals or on the part of the authorities.

As all forms of religion are and shall be freely professed in my dominions, no subject of my Empire shall be hindered in the exercise of the religion that he professes, nor shall be in any way annoyed on this account. No one shall be compelled to change his religion.

Functionaries and other employes of my Empire

The nomination and choice of all functionaries and other employes of my Empire being wholly dependent upon my sovereign will, all the subjects of my Empire, without distinction of nationality, shall be admissible to public employments, and qualified to fill them according to their capacity and merit, and conformably with rules to be generally applied.

All the subjects of my Empire, without distinction, shall be received into the civil and military schools of the government, if they otherwise satisfy the conditions as to age and examination, which are specified in the organic regulations of the said schools. Moreover, every community is authorized to establish public schools of science, art, and industry. Only the method of instruction and the choice of professors in schools of this class shall be under the control of a mixed Council of Public Instruction, the members of which shall be named by my sovereign command.

All commercial, correctional, and criminal suits between Mussulman and Christian, or other non-Mussulman subjects, or between Christians or other non-Mussulmans of different sects, shall be referred to mixed tribunals.

The proceedings of these tribunals shall be public; the parties shall be confronted, and shall produce their witnesses, whose testimony shall be received, without distinction bulgaria private tours, upon an oath taken according to the religious law of each sect.

Suits relating to civil affairs shall continue to be publicly tried, according to the laws and regulations, before the mixed provincial councils, in the presence of the governor and judge of the place. Special civil proceedings, such as those relating to successions, or others of that kind, between subjects of the same Christian or other non-Mussulman faith, may, at the request of the parties, be sent before the councils of the patriarchs or of the communities.

Penal, correctional, and commercial laws, and rules of procedure for the mixed tribunals, shall be drawn up as soon as possible, and formed into a code. Translations of them shall be published in all the languages current in the Empire.

Houses of detention, punishment, or correction

Proceedings shall be taken, with as little delay as possible, for the reform of the penitentiary system, as applied to houses of detention, punishment, or correction, and other establishments of like nature, so as to reconcile the rights of humanity with those of justice. Corporal punishment shall not be administered, even in the prisons, except in conformity with the disciplinary regulations established by my Sublime Porte; and every thing that resembles torture shall be entirely abolished.

Infractions of the law in this particular shall be severely repressed, and shall besides entail, as of right, the punishment, in conformity with the civil code, of the authorities who may order and of the agents who may commit them.

The organization of the police in the capital, in the provincial towns, and in the rural districts, shall be revised in such a manner as to give to all the peaceable subjects of my Empire the strongest guarantees for the safety both of their persons and property.

The Central Congregational Church

The funeral services were attended at the Central Congregational Church, with which Dr. Goodell was connected. They were conducted by the pastor, Rev. Edward Hawes, assisted by the Rev. E. R. Beadle, D.D., pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, and formerly a missionary of the American Board to Syria; and by Rev. George W. Wood, D.D., one of the secretaries of the Board, who had been associated with Dr. Goodell as a missionary at Constantinople.

His dust now sleeps in the Woodlands Cemetery, West Philadelphia.

Mrs. Goodell, the loving and faithful companion of his entire ministerial and missionary life, who had shared in all his toils and trials, who had been with him in all his perils, who had accompanied him in his journeys by land and by sea, and who had lived to return with him to their native land, and now to see him depart to “a better country, even an heavenly,” was to tarry a little longer before being permitted to join him in the mansions above.

She continued to reside with her son, Dr. William Goodell, in Philadelphia, until the summer of 1871, when, in the seventy-second year of her age, the summons came for which she had been hopefully waiting. During her last illness, which, though short, was severe, she spoke freely of her departure; and even before it was thought by others that her end was near, she said, that, while she was in possession of all her faculties, and was able to express her thoughts, she wished to say that she was very happy in the thought of dying. Her trust in the Redeemer and her peace of mind were unbroken to the last.

Mission work on the banks

The day before she became unconscious she was permitted to embrace once more her son and daughter, the Rev. Herman N. Barnum, D.D., and wife, with their children, who had returned to this country for a brief season from their mission work on the banks of the Euphrates. Her last prayer was now granted, her last desire fulfilled, her work on earth was all done; and early on the morning of the 11th of July, from the same chamber from which the spirit of her beloved husband had ascended to heaven, from which, on the 7th of March, 1870, her daughter Isabella had gone up to meet him, she, too, went up to join her beloved, and to meet, in the home of their Father, the many from the lands of the East whom they had been instrumental in turning to righteousness.

Confidence and commanding the respect of all around

And, my brethren, if you do not now remain, or speedily become, a holy, happy, united people, securing the confidence and commanding the respect of all around you, you have none to blame but yourselves; for in being good and doing good, no people on earth ever enjoyed a higher freedom than has been bestowed upon you.

Among my last words of adieu to you, let me exhort you to bear with one another’s infirmities, “ forgiving one another, even as God, for Christ’s sake, hath forgiven you.” Be honest in your dealings both with the world and with one another, always keeping your accounts written in a fair hand; and this even in all business transactions with your own relatives – and Christian brethren; for memory is imperfect, and impressions are not always to be trusted. In this imperfect world, the only safe way is to keep a book-account of all pecuniary transactions.

Train up your children in the way they should go. Re-member that they have souls as well as bodies, and if it be your duty to provide food and raiment for their bodies, so is it your duty to provide instruction for their immortal minds. See that they have suitable teachers and suitable books. Teach them also yourselves, especially on the Lord’s day, and bring them with you to the sanctuary, that they may assist in singing the high praises of our God, and that they may receive the blessing of the God of Jacob.

Religious institutions

Labor to support, as soon as possible, your own civil, educational, and religious institutions; and be always ready to assist those more needy than yourselves.

Be kind to the poor and to the sick, and visit the families of affliction, of want, and of sorrow. In all these respects, be Jesus Christ’s men and women; that is, do as you think He would do if He were among you. Hasten to the relief of those who are in distress. Have little prayer-meetings in the neighborhood of those who are unable to attend public worship. Have little meetings also for the young, and for those who are beginning to seek after God, and to desire a knowledge of His ways.

Observed with sacred interest at Constantinople

The jubilee of the American Board of Missions was celebrated in 18GO. The occasion was observed with sacred interest at Constantinople. Dr. Goodell was appointed to prepare a historical address, which he did, interweaving his record with numerous personal reminiscences of the deepest interest. lie had been associated with many of the earlier mls’onaries to the different parts of the world; he was present at the ordination of Judson, Nott, Newell, Hall, and lvice, at Salem, Macs., in 1812, two years after the organization of the Board; he stood on the wharf when the first company of missionaries to the Sandwich Islands sailed from Boston in 1819, one of his own kindred being in that company; down through the whole history of the Board he had watched its work and its progress with an interest exceeded in the case of no other of its missionaries, and in that work he had been honored with bearing no insignificant part.

Not among all the friends of this noble institution, so honored of God in sending the tidings of the Gospel through the world, was there one who had been more completely identified with it, or who had prayed with more constancy, or labored more faithfully for its prosperity. And now it was a joyful service to be permitted to celebrate its success by recounting its history, and giving all the praise to God.

On the Gth of November, 1800, Dr. Goodell, who had then resided at the Turkish capital nearly thirty years, made the following expression of his views in regard to the attitude of the government toward foreigners and toward Christianity, and of the results of the issuing of the Ilatti llumayoun: —

Summer residences in different places

“When we first came to Turkey, and for many years after, we could not live in Constantinople proper, nor, indeed (after the influence of our labors began to be felt), in any of its suburbs, except Pera. Although other Franks had summer residences in different places, still this privilege was, through the influence of the Armenians, Greeks, and Catholics, denied to us; and it was with great difficulty, and only after long and very strenuous efforts, that we obtained a foothold in Bebek. But the Turks now no longer listen to the representations, or rather misrepresentations, of our enemies, and we live without molestation wherever we choose, even in the very city itself. The change in this respect is certainly very great, and it would be ungrateful to deny it.

No such translation of the Koran

This he admitted; but said that no such translation of the Koran would be or could be the Koran itself; that nobody would or could receive it as such; that it would have no authority, and could have none; and that all their prayers and worship and religious expressions must absolutely be in the ancient language, whether understood or not. I told him that in this respect they were exactly on a level with the Jews, Armenians, Greeks, Coptics, Maronites, Jacobites, lloman Catholics, and even the degraded heathen in India, all of whom had their Shasters and Liturgies in ancient and unknown tongues; that while in business transactions with one another they always made it a point to understand and be understood, in all transactions with their Maker they used words without meaning, and that, in fact, nobody but Protestants even so much as pretended to offer unto God a ‘ reasonable service,’ — a worship intelligible to themselves.

Scriptures into Turkish for the Mussulman

“ The British and Foreign Bible Society have spared no pains or expense in their efforts to procure a good translation of the Scriptures into Turkish for the Mussulman; they have revised, and re-revised, and they are ready to make any further effort which may be required. But my own opinion would be, that they should now wait, and make no further change till the present editions shall be nearly exhausted, or till there shall be a waking up of the Turkish mind to the truth.

When there shall be a class of Turks who desire to know, and to have their neighbors and friends know, exactly and fully what God’s revelation is, it will then be comparatively easy, with their help, to prepare a translation which shall meet their wants and wishes; for it would then be adapted, and intended to be adapted, to the common mind. Learned natives could then be employed in the work, who, like Luther, would be all alive to the subject, from their own personal interest in it, and wrho, being fully’’ capable of appreciating the common mind, w’ould have all the stores of the Turkish language at command, to be used freely for the benefit of such minds.”

Another bore the name of Soorpoohi

Another bore the name of Soorpoohi (Holiness). Another, Aroosiag (Morning Star). She has since been very useful as a teacher among the Armenians. Still another was Sopliik ( Wisdom). She became the wife of an Armenian bearing the name of Avedis (Glad Tidings), who has been a Christian pastor at Constantinople. This school, as will hereafter appear, enjoyed to a remarkable degree the blessing of God in the presence and gracious influences of the Iloly Spirit, and it was a nursery in which many precious youth were trained up for lives of usefulness.

Miss Harriet M. Lovell, who afterward became the wife of Mr. Hamlin, joined the mission at this time, taking the principal charge of the school, and finding also a home with Mr. and Mrs. Goodell. Her correspondence, which may be seen in the memoirs of “ The Missionary Sisters ” (Mrs. Everett and Mrs. Hamlin), is filled with expressions of her great happiness in finding in a distant land, among those who had been strangers to her, a circle of devoted and beloved friends, and in Mr. and Mrs. Goodell a father and mother, to whom she became tenderly attached.

To Rev. E. E. Bliss, at Trebizond, he wrote, in reply to a letter asking advice: —

CONSTANTINOPLE, June 2, 1845.

MY DEAR BROTHER, — What persecution your friends suffer from their own neighbors and families cannot be helped. Many of our friends suffer the same here, and have for years. Some of them for a long time have been excluded from the paternal roof; but this kind of persecution is suffered at the present day in France, England, and even in America; and no law can prevent it. So your bishop can excommunicate as much as he pleases, and nobody out of his church has a right to interfere.

Unwilling to suffer with Christ

But if he makes use of the civil arm, if he throws into prison, sends into exile, or uses the bastinado, then there is ground for interference. If your people would be saved, they must endure to the end. If they are unwilling to suffer with Christ, they are unworthy of Him. But this, by the way, teaches us the importance of not encouraging any to oppose their bishop, or to take any strong stand against the errors of their church, till we have good reason to believe that they are the Lord’s people, and have a good deal of faith; for otherwise, it is very certain they will not stand in the day of trial.

If the bishop goes on excommunicating and casting out of the church those who have received the Gospel, after we have suffered patiently long enough, we shall be fully justified, in the view of the whole world, in gathering them into a congregation by themselves visit bulgaria. But it is well to have on hand a good many cases of our great forbearance in order to justify this step, showing that we were not over-greedy for it, snatching at the first opportunity, but wTere literally forced into it.

W. GOODELL.

The year 1846 opened with marked spiritual prosperity, but it ushered in the most severe persecution which the Armenian converts were ever called to endure. The Gospel was so evidently making progress among the people, and was so plainly in conflict with the dead formalism and idolatry which prevailed in the ancient church of the Armenians; the teachings of the missionaries, and of the converts who had become preachers of Christ to their own nation, were so decided a rebuke to the ecclesiastics of all grades, from the patriarch down to the humblest priest, whose lives and ministrations were utterly opposed to the spirit and the letter of the word of God, that their hostility could not longer be restrained; and having the power, as they supposed, to suppress the new religion, they determined to attempt it once more.

On the last Sabbath in January

Accordingly, on the last Sabbath in January, “ the lord archbishop and patriarch of the great metropolitan city of Constantinople ” issued his anathema, which was ordered to be read in all the churches on that day, excommunicating an evangelical priest, Vertanes, and consigning him over to Satan as an enemy of all righteousness. lie was described as “ a vagabond fellow, going about through the metropolis babbling out errors; an enemy to the holy church, a divider of the members, a cause of scandal, and a seducer of the people; a traitor and murderer of Christ, a child of the devil, and offspring of antichrist,” &c. The bull of excommunication continued: —

“ Wherefore we expel him, and forbid him, as a devil and a child of the devil, to enter into the company of our believers; we cut him off from the priesthood as an amputated member of the spiritual body of Christ, and as a branch cut off from the vine, which is good for nothing but to be cast into the fire. By this admonitory bull I therefore command and warn my beloved in every city far and near not to look upon his face, regarding it as the face of Belial; not to re-ceive him into your holy dwellings, for he is a house-destroying and ravening wolf; not to receive his salutation but as a soul-destroying and deadly poison; and to beware with all your households of the seducing and impious followers of the false doctrine of modern sectarists,” .

Inhabitants of other worlds

When our race departed from God, and we were cut off in a great measure from intercourse with one another, perhaps we were then cut off from all the intercourse we may have heretofore enjoyed with the inhabitants of other worlds, and confined to our own narrow limits, that we might not corrupt others by our example; but as missionaries are sent forth, and the nations return to God and to duty, who can tell but we may yet be permitted to find the means of holding inter course with our neighbors in other planets, or our fellow-beings in the stars. But you will probably prefer to let your neighbors go, till you hear something of your own relatives at Constantinople.

Dear brother, let us live for eternity, for time will soon be no more. Let us pray for each other, and for each other’s families.

Your brother,

WILLIAM.

He writes in his journal: —

“February 18, 1812. On account of the encroachments of the Turks on the Frank burying-ground, I had to remove the body of our beloved boy. The grave, contrary to the custom of the country, had been dug deep, and the colfin was scarcely damp. Every thing was sweet and still. The new grave which we have prepared a few rods distant was also deep and dry; and there we laid the body, to rest in its quiet bed till the resurrection morning. Beloved child, farewell! ”

Mr. Goodell was original in almost every thing that he did or sa.’.d or wrote. The following letter of introduction is characteristic. It was superscribed: —

“ To the Rev. Messrs. Temple, Adger, Riggs, Van Lennep, and Calhoun, Smyrna, introducing one of those that resemble the children of a king: ” —

PKRA, March 5, 1842.

Incorruptible inheritance

DEAR BRETHREN, — I have much pleasure in introducing to you and to your good families Mr. Marshall, a fellow- countryman of ours, “ a fellow-citizen of the saints,” one of the royal family, born to a great estate, even “an incorruptible inheritance,” and possessing, also, no inconsiderable portion of comfort and convenience, on his way to the “ better country.” Having said thus much, I need not say more to bespeak your attentions and civilities to one of such high and noble extraction, and of such boundless prospects for eternity.

And with Christian salutations I venture to subscribe myself, by the grace of God,

A fellow-heir,

W. GOODELL.

Room of Brother Temple

I remember when the room of Brother Temple and myself was filled from morning to night with our classmates and other students, who were anxious to learn what is most important for a sinner to know, but which colleges cannot teach, viz., how the righteousness of God’s beloved Son could become theirs? and when from day to day we laid aside the demonstration of mathematical problems to attend to the more clear and more important demonstrations of the Spirit.

Nor have I forgotten when that interesting young lady, who subsequently became the partner of your joys and sorrows, and who has now gone to join “ the general assembly and church of the first-born ” above, was examined for admission into the church here below, with the various questions proposed to her by different individuals present on that occasion. Oh, what delightful meetings we had in college, and on the Plain, and in all the region round about!

“ Those were golden, happy days,

Sweetly spent in prayer and praise.”

Unbroken and a happy family still

In Mr. Lang’s family I spent many pleasant hours, the remembrance of which is pleasant still. And though, at first, an involuntary sadness begins to steal over the mind in the reflection that the whole family, root and branch, is plucked up and removed for ever, yet the sadness immediately gives place to joy, in the thought that it is an unbroken and a happy family still, and that its removal from all these earthly scenes is not into a darker state, but into one of infinitely greater light and purity and blessedness. Here, to be sure, they enjoyed much, but there they will enjoy incomparably more. Here they inherited a little, there they will “ inherit all things.” Here they had a pleasant abode and many sincere friends, but all these were nothing in comparison with what they find in that “ better country, even an heavenly.”

Why, then, should we ever think or speak of them as being dead, when it is we who are dead, and they — they now have begun to know in reality what it is to “ have life, and to have it more abundantly ”! Oh, what thanks shall we render to Him who came down from heaven for no other purpose but to take us up with Him to His own glorious kingdom above!

Translations in Armeno-Turkish

Yes; I remember such prayers. And lo! God is pleased to take us at our word, and to make us appear, at least, very small. And what if He should go a step farther, and make us nothing, or even, as it were, less than nothing, both in our own estimation and in the eyes of all the people here, in order that He may appear to be something, in order that He may be seen, that He may be praised, and that He may be glorified, and not we, and that thus He may be, as He deserves to be, ‘ all in all ’!

“ November 15. To-day I removed from the house I have occupied for the last three years to another I have secured for two years to come. In no other house, since I left America, fifteen years ago, have I lived so long, or enjoyed so many comforts, or felt to such a degree ‘ the powers of the world to come,’ as I have in this; and in no other have there been more important missionary operations going on. Here my translations in Armeno-Turkish have been carried forward, and the meetings in Turkish generally held. Here from Sabbath to Sabbath have been two distinct chapels opened for two distinct services, viz., in English and German.

Here began and flourished our high school in both its branches. Here were our philosophical apparatus, our room for public lectures, and our chemical laboratory. Here, for the most part, we held our Sabbath school, our Bible class, our singing meetings, our communion seasons, our monthly concerts, and our daily concerts, and our special days for fasting or thanksgiving. And what is more and better than all, we trust ‘the Lord will count, when He writeth up the people, that this and that man were born there.’

Universally the fate of all wooden houses

“ My present house is a new one, but is not so well situated as the former, and, being built of wood, its end doubtless is to be burned,’ for such is universally the fate of all wooden houses in Constantinople. But, while we occupy it, may we enjoy more of the divine presence and blessing than we have ever done before! May every room be consecrated to Christ!

May the Holy Spirit find a mansion in every heart, and be always cherished, and never grieved away! May all who shall enter our religious assemblies learn to worship God in spirit and in truth! May all who come to inquire concerning the truth become wise unto salvation! May all who dwell beneath this roof dwell in love, that they may dwell in God and God in them! And whenever we take our last remove, may we have a building of God, an house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens ’!

Money for houses and lands in Greece

They were interested in the affairs of Greece, and read every thing which was published about the state of things there. They laid out their money for houses and lands in Greece, and were making preparation to remove thither with their whole families. They hailed as a brother every one who was a friend to Greece, and they had a time of rejoicing whenever they heard good news from that country. In fact, they carried on a brisk correspondence and trade with Greece; all their thoughts and desires and aims and endeavors had some reference or other to Greece; they lived in Malta, but their citizenship was in Greece; and they were known and acknowledged everywhere as the citizens of Greece. Every one of them could say, That is my country; that is my home; there my best friends and kindred dwell.’

Just so shouldour citizenship be in heaven.’ Every thing we do or say should have special reference to heaven. And whenever we are at a loss to know what is meant byour citizenship being in heaven,’ we should think of these citizens of Greece. And oh, may our thoughts always dwell in heaven with a thousand times more delight and interest than theirs did in Greece! ”

The extracts from his journal are continued: —

“ Wednesday, October 28. I was visited to-day by three Armenian bishops. One of them was Bishop of, near Aleppo; the other two were from the party of the patriarch here, one of them being his chief secretary. The conversation turned on what was moral, and what merely ceremonial, in the institutions of religion.

Christianity the mode

They all agreed with me that in Christianity the mode, the outward form, was comparatively nothing, while the spirit was every thing. Every thing in the institutions of Christ which pertained to the ceremonial part was, I told them, left prescribed, to be accommodated to the customs of different countries, and the changed state of society of different periods. In the Lord’s Supper, for instance, not a word was said at what hour it must be observed, whether morning, noon, or night; in what way, whether standing, sitting, or kneeling; how often, whether once a year, once a month, once a week, once a day, or several times a day; in what place, whether in a ‘ large upper room * or on the lower floor. In fact, every thing ceremonial about the institution was left altogether undefined. The great thing required was to do it in remembrance of Christ.

Once destitute of almost every comfort

The fire followed us, and in about an hour the fire was at the next door. We hastened to Top-Hana, and, hungry, thirsty, and fatigued, we came the same night in a boat to this place, a distance of about eighteen miles. Mr. Churchhill had a house here, which his family were already occupying. We were strangers, and they took us in,’ and very hospitably entertained us, till we could look round and find a dwelling, and purchase a few things necessary for commencing housekeeping. We found ourselves at once destitute of almost every comfort, and had, as it were, to begin the world anew. Not a single cup nor a single utensil remained. Two single beds, partly burnt, three sheets and two coverlets, partly burnt, and one pillow, constituted the whole of our conveniences for the night.

Panayotes, the Greek above mentioned, threw many of my books from the window, a part of which were preserved; but all my Grammars and Dictionaries in the English, French, Italian, Arabic, Hebrew, Greek, Armenian, and Turkish languages; all my Geographies, Gazetteers, Histories (excepting two odd volumes of Moslieim), Commentaries on the Bible, manuscripts, translations, with many of my private papers, are gone, — all ‘into smoke have they consumed away.’

Curiosity to a stranger

I had visited most of the places here which are objects of curiosity to a stranger, and had taken copious notes of what I had seen and heard; but not a trace of them is now to be found. We had provided at Malta a good supply of clothing for ourselves and children, but of many articles we are entirely deprived, and of others to a great degree. I have not a single shirt to put on. We had a pretty large stock of medicines, but not one article was saved Ra Harakhti . We had many little comforts which are considered indispensable in case of sickness, but not a single one is left; nor can many of them be obtained here now at any price. Keys we have in full complement, but scarcely any thing to unlock.

‘‘ The little girls thought it very hard that the fire paid no respect to their toys or their books. Their ‘ Little Philosopher ’ books and all the rest are gone. The second day after our arrival at this place there was an alarm of fire where we are staying, and they began to cry, and said they would go back to Malta. The trunk that I carried so far on my back when I left home to enter Phillips Academy, and which I intended to bequeath to my children for their inheritance, is also gone.

“ But, though cast down, we are not destroyed. We have been afflicted, but not given over unto death. And one reason why I have dwelt thus particularly on our own circumstances is that you may form some idea of the losses and circumstances (and in some instances great distresses) of from seventy to eighty thousand of our fellow-sufferers. Of all that part properly, I understand, called Pera, only eight private houses are said to remain. One of these is Mr. Churchhill’s.

Of all the palaces, only the Austrian and Swedish were saved. Of all the churches, only one Greek and one Latin (with the new English chapel then in building) escaped the general conflagration. The people in crowds made the best of their way to the burying-grounds with whatever they could take with them; and for several days and nights from ten to twenty thousand persons might be seen there, many of them with scarcely any other covering than the canopy of heaven, or any other bed than the graves they slept upon. Multitudes of men, women, and children might be seen lying against a grave-stone, to defend their head from wind and cold during repose.

Emir Beshir

On the east are the Greeks, who must pass by us, whether they attack the city by land or by sea. The Emir Beshir, head of the mountain tribes, has come down from the mountain with his troops, and encamped about half an hour’s distance to the south of us; and whether he will assist the Greeks or the Turks, or attempt to become master of the city himself, in opposition to both, is a perfect secret. To the north of us is the Bay of Beyrout. We are therefore hedged in on all sides; and the English consul being within the walls of the city, we have no protection but that of the Almighty. We wait with anxiety for the result, as it respects the fate of the city and the interests of this mission.

Greeks passed the city

“ Thursday, 23r7. The Greek vessels spread their sails this morning before sunrise, and, with a very light breeze, moved out of the river. All eyes were fastened upon them. The Turks were at their posts, and the most solemn silence prevailed. The Greeks passed the city at a respectful distance, without throwing a single ball. Just at this time a large number of troops arrived from the Pasha of Acre, consisting principally of Albanians and Bedouins. These, finding the Greeks out of reach, immediately poured forth into all that part of the country which had been, on the preceding Sabbath, in possession of the Greeks, and commenced plundering every house.

A French merchant, whose house was near mine, they seized by the throat, took a gold watch from his pocket, his money from his belt, and articles from his house, to the value of five thousand Spanish dollars. My own house, being about the centre of their depredations, was much exposed. Many parties came at different times and demanded entrance; but on my telling them the house was English, and they must not presume to enter, they departed.

“ After being annoyed by them in this way more than three hours, with a full and painful view before my eyes of their nefarious operations, a party of six or seven, most or all of whom were Bedouins, who appeared only ‘ fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils,’ came and very insolently and peremptorily bid me open the door. I reasoned with them a long time from the second-story window, but to no purpose. One of them cocked his gun and levelled it at my head.

Herodotus came to admire

The picturesque cemetery, shaded by oaks, on the hill above the Genoese Castle, overlooking the entrance to the Black Sea, a view that Darius I. and Herodotus came to admire, is also named “The Field of Witnesses,” because there, it is supposed, Saracen soldiers who fell in an attack upon the castle were buried. Such cemeteries are holy ground, and sepulture in them is regarded as a great honour. The attendance of the Sultan at the midday public prayers on Fridays is the official act of the Caliph of the Mohammedan world. He ascends the throne after girding his sword at the grave of the first standard-bearer of the Prophet, in the Mosque of Eyoub.

The mantle of the Prophet, his green standard, his staff, sword, bow, are enshrined in the Seraglio as the sovereign’s regalia, and are annually visited by the Sultan as a great State function. Around that standard all true Moslems must rally when Islam is in peril. No great act of Government may be performed until the chief doctor of the Sacred Law, the Sheik – ul – Islam, has been consulted, and sanctions the act, as in accordance with the supreme authority of faith and righteousness. Sultan Abdul Azis and his nephew, Sultan Murad, were deposed only after such sanction had been obtained.

Brought up as Moslems

Upon this theocratic conception of the State, the exclusion of the Christian subjects of the Empire from the army is based. For, how can aliens in religion be enlisted under the banner of the Faith? Hence the institution of the janissaries in the early history of the Ottoman Power, whereby children of Christian parentage were taken from their homes and brought up as Moslems, to furnish recruits for the army. It was an ingenious device to maintain the religious character of the military force of the Empire, and yet to prevent the burden of filling the ranks from resting exclusively upon the faithful. The abolition of the child-tax, however fortunate to others, proved a great injury to Turkey.

It not only deprived the Sultans of their finest troops, but has been one of the principal causes of the great decrease in the Moslem population of the country; as that class of the community alone has since been called to sustain the losses involved in military service. The mortality among the soldiers of the Turkish army from disease and war is so great that the Moslem population is rapidly dying out, and well-informed medical experts are heard to say, “ The Eastern Question will be solved by the disappearance of the Turks in the natural course of things.”

St Mary Pammacaristos Fethiyeh Djamissi

The inhabitants of Constantinople were sinners, though not sinners above all men, as they are often represented. But in their hospitals, orphanages, asylums for the aged, free caravanseries, asylums for lepers, and other institutions “to give rest to those whom trouble had distressed,” which humanised the city with compassion, they were distinguished also for that charity which covereth a multitude of sins.

The Churches of S. Mary Pammacaristos Fethiyeh Djamissi), the Church of S. Theodosia (Gul Djamissi), and portions of S. Saviour-in-the-Chora, carry us to the times of the Palseologi, the dynasty that occupied the throne of Constantinople during the last one hundred and ninety years of the city’s history as New Rome. It is the period of the long struggle with the Ottoman Turks, and the culmination of the conflict between the Mohammedan world and Christendom which had filled more than eight centuries with its hate and din; when the sign in which the Empire had conquered yielded to the sign of the crescent, and the benediction of the prophet of Islam—“ Whoso taketh the city of Constantine, his sins are forgiven ”—found at length a man upon whose head it could settle. It is a sad period of Byzantine history; yet one noble idea, at least, appealed to its mind—the Reunion of Christendom — which, if realised, would have changed the history of Europe. But it was not to be.

St Saviour-in-the-Chora

Like all the churches of the city situated near the fortifications, the Church of S. Saviour-in-the-Chora was regarded with special veneration as a guardian of the safety of “the God-defended capital/’ and there, during the siege of 1458, was placed, as an additional pledge of security, the icon of S. Mary Hodegetria, attributed to S. Luke. But the church was the first sanctuary into which Turkish troops broke on the fatal 29th May for pillage. They spumed to take the icon as a part of their plunder, and in mockery of its vaunted power hacked it to pieces. The Latin Church of S. Peter in Galata claims to possess one of the fragments.

Beautiful Gate

On the 29th or 80th of May 1458, Sultan Mehemet the Conqueror alighted from his horse at the gate of S. Sophia. It was most probably at the “ Beautiful Gate,” at the southern end of the noble inner narthex of the church, the entrance through which the Emperors of Constantinople usually proceeded to the cathedral. According to one account, the Sultan stooped down at the threshold, took some earth, and scattered it on his head in token of humiliation before God.

Entering, he saw a Moslem breaking the marble pavement. He struck at the vandal with a scimiter for daring to injure a building that belonged of right to the sovereign. Then, in what to the Eastern world was the Holy of Holies of Christendom, an imaum ascended the pulpit and cried aloud, “ There is no God but God, and Mahomet is His prophet” And so it has been ever since.

The Church of S. Saviour Pantepoptes, the All- Seeing (Eski Imaret Djamissi), the Church of S. Saviour Pantocrator, the All-Powerful (Zeirek Kiliss£ Djamissi), and the interior of S. Saviour-in- the-Chora (Kahriyeh Djamissi), recall the period of the Comneni and the Angeli (1081-1204).

In their erection ladies of considerable importance in the history of Constantinople had a part. The first was built by Anna Dalassena, the mother of Alexius I. Comnenus; the last was restored by his mother-in-law, Mary Ducaena, a Bulgarian princess famous for her beauty; the second was an erection of the Empress of John I. Comnenus, the daughter of Geysa I., King of Hungary.

These churches represent the age when Constantinople was stirred by the march of the earlier Crusades through the territory of the Empire, when Peter the Hermit and Godfrey de Bouillon encamped their followers within sight of the city walls, to be dazzled by the splendours of the Palace of Blachemae, and cajoled by the diplomacy of Alexius I. Comnenus. They also recall the time when Henrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice, brought his fleet and the troops of the Fourth Crusade to the Golden Horn, and founded the short-lived Latin Empire of Constantinople.

It was on the terraced ground beside the Church of Pantepoptes that the Emperor Alexius Murtzuplus pitched his vermilion tents and drew up his reserve forces. There he stood to see the walls on the shore below attacked by the Venetian ships and carried by Frankish knights. From that position he fled at the approach of a body of the enemy’s horsemen, and under his un-stricken vermilion tent Count Baldwin of Flanders and Hainaut, soon to succeed him as Latin Emperor of Constantinople, spent the night of that memorable day.

Beautiful Gate

On the 29th or 80th of May 1458, Sultan Mehemet the Conqueror alighted from his horse at the gate of S. Sophia. It was most probably at the “ Beautiful Gate,” at the southern end of the noble inner narthex of the church, the entrance through which the Emperors of Constantinople usually proceeded to the cathedral. According to one account, the Sultan stooped down at the threshold, took some earth, and scattered it on his head in token of humiliation before God.

Entering, he saw a Moslem breaking the marble pavement. He struck at the vandal with a scimiter for daring to injure a building that belonged of right to the sovereign. Then, in what to the Eastern world was the Holy of Holies of Christendom, an imaum ascended the pulpit and cried aloud, “ There is no God but God, and Mahomet is His prophet” And so it has been ever since.

The Church of S. Saviour Pantepoptes, the All- Seeing (Eski Imaret Djamissi), the Church of S. Saviour Pantocrator, the All-Powerful (Zeirek Kiliss£ Djamissi), and the interior of S. Saviour-in- the-Chora (Kahriyeh Djamissi), recall the period of the Comneni and the Angeli (1081-1204).

In their erection ladies of considerable importance in the history of Constantinople had a part. The first was built by Anna Dalassena, the mother of Alexius I. Comnenus; the last was restored by his mother-in-law, Mary Ducaena, a Bulgarian princess famous for her beauty; the second was an erection of the Empress of John I. Comnenus, the daughter of Geysa I., King of Hungary.

These churches represent the age when Constantinople was stirred by the march of the earlier Crusades through the territory of the Empire, when Peter the Hermit and Godfrey de Bouillon encamped their followers within sight of the city walls, to be dazzled by the splendours of the Palace of Blachemae, and cajoled by the diplomacy of Alexius I. Comnenus. They also recall the time when Henrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice, brought his fleet and the troops of the Fourth Crusade to the Golden Horn, and founded the short-lived Latin Empire of Constantinople.

It was on the terraced ground beside the Church of Pantepoptes that the Emperor Alexius Murtzuplus pitched his vermilion tents and drew up his reserve forces. There he stood to see the walls on the shore below attacked by the Venetian ships and carried by Frankish knights. From that position he fled at the approach of a body of the enemy’s horsemen, and under his un-stricken vermilion tent Count Baldwin of Flanders and Hainaut, soon to succeed him as Latin Emperor of Constantinople, spent the night of that memorable day.

Venetian fleet

Of the historical events of which the Golden Horn has been the theatre, the most important are: first, the attack upon the walls along this side of the city, in 1203, and again in 1204, by the Venetian fleet which accompanied the Fourth Crusade; second, the transportation by Sultan Mehemet into its waters in 1458, of warships over the hill that separates the harbour from the Bosporus. The movements of the Venetian fleet and of the army which accompanied it can be followed step by step, so minute is the description of Ville – Hardouin and so unaltered the topography of the country. Upon approaching the city the invaders put in at San Stefano, now a favourite suburban resort upon the Sea of Marmora.

A south wind carried them next to Scutari. From that point they crossed to the bay now occupied by the Palace of Dolma Bagtchd, near Beshiktash. There the army landed, and advancing along the shore attacked the tower to which the northern end of the chain across the harbour’s mouth was fastened. Upon the capture of the tower after a feeble resistance, the chain was cut, and the fleet of Venice under the command of Dandolo, flying the ensign of S. Mark, rode into the Golden Horn and made for the head of the harbour.

Cassim Pasha and Haskeui

At the same time, the troops marched towards the same point, along the northern shore, where Cassim Pasha and Haskeui are now situated. At the latter suburb they crossed the stone bridge that led to Eyoub on the southern bank. Then turning eastwards, they seized the hill facing the portion of the city walls above which the windows and domes of the Palace of Blachernse looked towards the west. While the army prepared to attack that point, the ships of Dandolo stood before the harbour walls, in a long line from Aivan Serai to the Phanar and the neighbourhood of the present Inner Bridge.

A desperate assault followed, in which twenty-five towers were carried by the Venetians, and the day would have been won, but for the repulse of the land forces and the necessity to hasten to their relief. Soon a revolution within the city against the usurper whom the Crusaders had come to depose, and in favour of the restoration of Isaac Angelus, whose claim to the throne they supported, seemed to bring the struggle to an end. As a sign that amicable relations had been established, and to avoid the danger of angry collisions with the citizens, the invaders removed their forces to the northern side of the Golden Horn.

How the river Rhombos became Hebros

Love and hate, or how the river Rhombos became Hebros

Once, long ago, today’s Maritsa river was called Rhombos. It was wide, navigable and at places it swirled in steep rapids. Cassander, the ruler of the land, had a wife who gave birth to a son Hebros. But pretty soon the ruler’s love for his wife faded and he brought to the palace the young and cunning Damasipe. To his misfortune, she fell in love with the handsome youth Hebros at first sight. Hebros, however, put her off and retreated into the mountain hunting. Then Damasipe complained to Cassander that his son tried to rape her. The jealous king rushed with his suite to punish him cruelly. The youth ran but when he reached Rhombos he saw his way was cut from all sides. So, he jumped into the turbulent river, which was henceforth called after him.

Present-day Plovdiv is the center of the Thracian valley, and the Maritsa-Hebros flows across it. In times gone by, the river provided good irrigation to the land and plenty of fish for the people. The climate here was always mild, and the soil fertile and rich for the farmers. People procured pure drinking water from the nearby Rhodope Mountains, as well as stone, timber, ore and game. It is no chance that man found sustenance in these lands since hoary antiquity (the Neolithic, the Bronze and Iron Ages). Once there were seven hills here, as in the Eternal City, three of them being rocky and taller than the others (Nebettepe, Djambaztepe and Taximtepe).

The city with many names

The ancient Thracian settlement (on Nebettepe) is believed to have been called Eumolpia. Plinius Senior describes a Thracian settlement near the Rhodopes and refers to it as Poneropolis. In 341 BC, Philip II of Macedon came here and expanded the place, turning it into a municipal center. A garrison was temporarily stationed here. The ruler called the city by his own name, Philippopolis – the City of Philip. Among the local population this sounded like Pulpudeva and they called it so. A strong wall encircled the top of the hill. Shortly before Thrace became a Roman province, on the hill stood the residence of the Thracian dynast Roimetalkas II, a faithful friend

of Rome. He even helped to suppress the unrests in the mountainous regions in 21 and 26, and the Romans were very grateful to him. Under Claudius (41-54) the Roman administration called the city Trimontium – The Three Hills. This new name, however, did not gain wide circulation. The city was generally known as Philippopolis and preserved this name until the Middle Ages.

About coins and gods

The numismatic material found in the city and its environs gives us valuable information about life in this land. The region of present- day Plovdiv was indirectly involved in the Peloponnese War between Athens and Sparta in the distant 5th century BC (431-404). From here originate electronic staters from the city of Kyzikos in Asia Minor What happened then? During the military operations, Athens was not able to buy grain from Euboea and Sicily. Therefore, it turned north to Thrace. The coins discovered here are evidence that grain was purchased from the region of Plovdiv and transported down the navigable Maritsa river to the Athenians.

The tetradrachmas of Thasos and Athens indicate live communications between this region and other centers on the Balkans. In the time of the Roman presence, the city of Philippopolis-Trimontium was given the right to mint its own coins mihrimah mosque, during the reign of Emperor Diocletian (81-96). From their effigies we judge about the socio-economic life here, of the urban development and religion. Due respect was given to the river Hebros, personified as a young seminude bearded god, recumbent on an amphora, from which water is pouring out. In one hand he holds attributes of fertility – an ear of wheat, a plant sprig, a flower. Other coins depict boats and river ships, indicative of the intensive trade along the river and in the valley. From Plovdiv comes a very curious bronze coin. It represents three girls. One is reaping, the middle one is cradling sand from the river for gold, the third one is digging out ore from a pit, doubtlessly in the Rhodopes. The mountain is also depicted on a coin with Orpheus, sitting on a rock playing his lyre.

It represents the time when the magic singer had lost his beloved Eurydice and withdrawn to the mountains. From the coins we learn about the government and status of the largest city in Thrace. Philippopolis received two important honorary distinctions. It was a metropolis, i.e. chief city. The administrative capital of Roman Thrace was Perinthos on the Sea of Marmora, but undoubtedly the city on the river Hebros was the most prosperous and imposing. Philippopolis was also granted the right to be neocoria – protector of the imperial cult. A special college of priests was elected to perform the duties to the supreme ruler of the Empire in a newly built or existing stately temple. The city had a demos (people’s assembly) and a bule (municipal council). Another type of coins represent hilltop statues of Apollo, Heracles and Hermes.

Ulpia Pautalia

The city was built at the foot of the Hissarlak hill. It was a major station on the route from Serdica (Sofia) to Stobi in Macedonia, with a side road to Thessalonica. There was a branch road to Sapareva Banya in the direction of Philippopolis. In the time of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) the ancient city was equipped with a stonewall and strong towers. In the 2nd – 4th centuries the enclosed area was about 30 hectares. Under the center of present-day Kyustendil lied the city agora (square).

Several sectors of the street network have been explored. Some streets reach a width of 12-13 meters (including the sidewalks). Water was brought from several springs but the biggest was near the Hissarlak and the Osogovo Mountain to the south. A Greek inscription from 135 AD (the time of Emperor Antoninus Pius) tells us about the construction of a civil basilica. The basilica in Ulpia Oescus was built the same year. Another inscription tells us that here there was a gymnasion for training youths. They also practiced sports indoors, as we learn from an epigraphic monument mentioning the name of the instructor

Pautalia are the Roman thermae

Among the most important investigated buildings in Pautalia are the Roman thermae, located in the southeastern part of the city. The building layout is rectangular and its floor- age is over 3000 sq. m. Probably it is part of a larger complex comprising the asclepion at the medicinal spring, the gymnsion and the sports school. The uncovered parts of an apodyterium, tepidarium and caldarium have a hypocaust system with columns and arcade, as well as radiant wall heating. The ceilings and floors of the rooms are covered with marble slates and have a rich architectural decoration of cornices and pilasters. To the north, the ruins of a sec-ond small bath, which also used mineral water, were investigated. South of one of the east-west streets (decumanus I) were situated shops with an inner court which served as a marketplace. Similar shops were also found in a north-south street (cardo 1). Next to the eastern fortress wall was uncovered a horreum, public storehouse for grain.

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences with the collaboration

Roman cities in the chronological scope of 1st – 4th centuries AD. Their presentation is not complete as it depends on the extent of the archaeological excavations carried out. Furthermore, part of the large ancient urban centers now lie under modern cities and their exploration is difficult. Excavations are conducted mainly by the Archaeological Institute with Museum at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences with the collaboration of the universities and especially the museums in the country. The ancient history of our lands has been of interest to European explorers and travelers (Italians, Austrians, Hungarians, Germans, Czechs, Frenchmen, Russians).

In many of the cities and Roman military camps international excavations have been carried out (and some are still in progress) such as: Italian in Oescus (during the Second World War, a team from Milan and Sofia); Bulgarian-German in Jantrus (near the village of Krivina, Ruse region) (archaeologists from Sofia, Ruse, Berlin and Frankfurt am Main); Bulgarian-Polish in Novae (Svishtov) (Sofia, Svishtov, Veliko Tarnovo, Warsaw, Poznan); Bulgarian- British in Nicopolis ad Istrum (the village of Nikyup, Veliko Tarnovo region) (Sofia, Veliko Tarnovo, Nottingham); Bulgarian- Italian in Ratiaria (the village of Archar, Vidin region) (Sofia, Vidin, Bologna).

Here we shall briefly introduce the readers to the historic and political atmos-phere in the Thracian lands of present-day Bulgaria 2000 years ago, when the Romans came.

After the conquest of Macedonia and Achaia, the Empire looked to conquering the lands on both sides of the Balkan Range (Stara Planina) and reaching the Black Sea coast. The first more serious invasion was made by the legions of general Marcus Lucullus in 72-71 BC. He conquered the west Pontic Greek poleis. Apollonia Pontica (Sozopol) put up great resistance and was razed. Spoil from there was the 9-meter tall statue of Apollo by the famous sculptor Kalamis (5th c. BC) which was taken to the Capitolium in Rome.

Marcus Licinius Crassus

In 29-28 BC, Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of the triumvir Crassus who crushed the big slave revolt led by the Thracian Spartacus, undertook two large- scale marches in the Balkans. During the first march he conquered the tribes on the right bank of the Danube and those in present-day Western Bulgaria, and then headed south of the Balkan Range. The Thracian community suffered great losses in life. Thus, several decades later the Romans founded the provinces of Moesia (12 AD) and Thrace (45 AD).

Losses involved in military service

It not only deprived the Sultans of their finest troops, but has been one of the principal causes of the great decrease in the Moslem population of the country; as that class of the community alone has since been called to sustain the losses involved in military service. The mortality among the soldiers of the Turkish army from disease and war is so great that the Moslem population is rapidly dying out, and well-informed medical experts are heard to say, “ The Eastern Question will be solved by the disappearance of the Turks in the natural course of things.”

The theocratic character of a Moslem State facilitates, indeed, the incorporation of different races in the same social and political system, seeing that all distinctions between men are obliterated by community in the faith of Islam. And it is impressive to see how closely the Mohammedan world, though not free from sects, is knit together by religious principle, and how strongly it cherishes the brotherhood of believers. In it, not in theory only but also in practice, the black man and the white man are fellow-citizens and of the same household.

Impossible for a Moslem State

But on the other hand, because of its theocratic constitution, it is impossible for a Moslem State to accept reforms which seek to secure equality of rights among its subjects, on the ground of a common humanity. Nothing is more opposed to the deepest convictions of a genuine Moslem than the idea that men of a different faith from his own can be his equals. There is no one who can be more polite than a Turk; no one who can treat you in a more friendly and flattering manner than hem.

Yet persons who have known him well, nay, who have loved him, testify that even in the relation of private friendship they have never felt that a Turk had given them his whole self, but was a friend with reservations that might lead him to act toward you in the most unfriendly manner. His religion confers on him an inaccessible superiority, from which he cannot descend without becoming a faithless son of Islam. His interests are superior to those of an infidel.

Byzantine Art

It employs them in another spirit, under the control of ideas different or more mature than have yet been known, as the utterance of feelings acting with peculiar force at particular moments in history, with more skill, on a larger scale, with happier effect, and the result is that something appears with an individual entity perfectly distinguishable from all that ever was before, or that will ever come after. Byzantine Art is its own very self, however many adumbrations prophesied its advent.

The oldest ecclesiastical edifice in the city—the Church of S. John the Baptist, attached to the monastery of Studius—does not, however, represent Byzantine architecture. Built in 468, it is a basilica, and accordingly is a specimen—the only specimen in Constantinople—of the earliest type of a Christian sanctuary. It was well-nigh destroyed in a conflagration that devasted the district of Psamatia in 1782, and its roof was crushed in by a heavy fall of snow some three winters ago. But, though only the shadow of its former self, its primitive character can be clearly recognised.

Catechumens and penitents

The old atrium before the church is still here, with a phiale or fountain in its centre for the purification of the gathering worshippers. Of the colonnaded cloister along the four sides of the atrium, the western portion, borne by four columns and forming the narthex of the church, still stands. There catechumens and penitents, unworthy to tread the holy ground within the sanctuary, stood outside and afar off. Beautiful trees now spread their branches over the court, and the shaded light falls upon turbaned Moslem tombs, as. of yore it fell upon the graves of Christian monks, from the trees growing in the Paradise of the monastery.

It is the most peaceful spot in all Constantinople, and as fair as it is calm and quiet The narthex belongs, undoubtedly, to the original fabric. Its marble pillars crowned by Corinthian capitals of a late type bear a horizontal entablature, and the egg and dart ornament, the dentils, the strings of pearls, familiar in the friezes of Greek and Roman temples mingle with foliage, birds, and crosses, expressive of new ideas and tastes. Within, the interior was a hall 89 feet by 88, divided by a double row of seven columns of verde antique marble, into a nave and two aisles.

Bishop of Smyrna or of Cotaeum in Phrygia

“Constantine,” they shouted, “founded the city; Cyrus has restored it.” Never had the capricious goddess smiled so benignantly upon him, and never did she prove more treacherous. Such popularity offended Theodosius, and he decided to break the idol of the people to pieces. Cyrus was dismissed from office, deprived of his property, and reduced to a political nonentity, by being consecrated Bishop of Smyrna or of Cotaeum in Phrygia. Such a proceeding appears very strange, but probably we are ignorant of facts which would explain this transformation of a pagan official into a Christian priest. One can hardly believe that a man like Cyrus was insincere in his new character.

The post assigned to the ex-Prefect was not attractive. Four of his predecessors in the diocese had been murdered by brigands, and the people committed to his care doubted the soundness of his faith. But in a sermon preached on Christmas Day he conciliated his flock by orthodox statements, pointing out at the same time that the mystery before their minds was most honoured by silence. And he died unmolested by robbers. It is curious to observe, in passing, how punishment here assumes a religious form, and how men tried to hide their cruelty under the pretence of doing good to the souls of their victims. In the subsequent history of Constantinople, this species of penalty became common. It was a symptom at once of the mildness and the meanness of the times.

But the reign of Theodosius II. is not distinguished only for the material growth of Constantinople. It is not less memorable for the advance of the city in its intellectual character, as the nursery of learning and the seat of justice. In this reign the University of Constantinople was opened. It found a home in the building known as the Capitol, on the hill now occupied by the Turkish War Office. Judging from the descrip-tions we have of the building, it resembled in its arrangements a Turkish theological school,—medresseh,—an open court, surrounded by class-rooms on the level of the court Some of the rooms were spacious halls, richly decorated, and accommodating large audiences. The studies pursued were chiefly grammar, rhetoric, and literature, both in Latin and in Greek, there being thirteen professors for these studies in the former language and fifteen in the latter. To philosophy only one professor was assigned, while the department of law was in charge of two professors.

In the charter, so to speak, of the University, particular stress is laid upon the need of a separate class-room for each teacher, lest the different classes should disturb one another by simultaneous talking and variety of languages, with the result that the ears and minds of the students would be diverted from their proper occupation mihrimah mosque. A candidate for a professor’s chair was required to undergo an examination before the Senate both as to his learning and his character. After twenty years’ service a professor was rewarded with the title of a Count of the Empire. Only the professors attached to the University were allowed to lecture in public, and they were not permitted to give private instruction.

The foundation of the University had two objects mainly in view—to prepare young men for the civil service, and to supersede the pagan schools of learning. It had certainly a lofty ideal, for, in the language of an inscription that refers to the institution, it was to be “a glory to scholars, an ornament to the city, the hope of youth, weapons to virtue, and wealth to the good.” Thus, while the shadows of ignorance were gathering to settle down upon western Europe, the light of knowledge was kept burning in the capital of the East until the darkness passed away. The study of Latin indeed was erelong abandoned in Constantinople, but Greek learning had always its friends there, who handed that treasure down from century to century, and bequeathed it at last to safer keeping and wider use.

Honour to the reign of Theodosius II

Another act that does honour to the reign of Theodosius II. is the codification of the laws enacted since the time of Constantine the Great The compilation took nine years to be made, and is known as the Theodosian Code. How great a need it supplied is quaintly set forth in the preamble to the Code. “ The chaos presented by the state in which the laws were found was such that few persons had an adequate knowledge of the subject even though their faces have grown pale from late lucubrations.” “When we consider,” to quote Professor Bury’s translation, “ the enormous multitude of books, the divers modes of process, and the difficulty of legal cases, and further the hugeness of imperial constitutions, which, hidden as it were under a veil of gross mist and darkness, precludes men’s intellects from gaining a knowledge of them, we feel that we have met a real need of our age, and, dispelling the darkness, have given light to the laws by a short compendium.”

Between Singidunum

When it came to the turn of the East to provide suitable seats of government, the honours were shared between Singidunum, near the modem Belgrade, and Nico- media in Asia Minor. But for reasons which will immediately appear, Constantine preferred Byzantium, and, having changed the comparatively insignificant town into a splendid city, named it New Rome and Constantinople, to become the sole centre for the administration of the Eastern portion of the Empire, and the local habitation of the spirit of a New Age.

It would appear that the selection of Byzantium for its great destiny was made after the claims of other cities to that distinction had been duly weighed. Naissus (the modem Nisch in Servia) which was the Emperor’s birthplace, Sardica (now Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria), Thessalonica were thought of for that purpose. They had the recommendation of giving ready access to the Danube frontier, along which the barbarians caused anxiety and demanded close attention. Some consideration was given to Nicomedia, which had already been selected by Diocletian for his capital It is also said, though without any serious grounds for the statement, that Constantine actually began work for a new city near the site of old Troy, under the spell of the poetic legends which associated Ilium with the origin of the Roman people.

Build opposite the blind

But the superiority of Byzantium to all rivals was so manifest that there was hardly room for long suspense as to the proper choice. The old oracle, “ Build opposite the blind,” which led to the foundation of Byzantium could still serve to guide Constantine in his search for the most suitable position of a new imperial city. There is no place in the wide world more eminently fitted by natural advantages to be the throne of a great dominion, than the promontory which guards the southern end of the Bosporus.

There Asia and Europe meet to lay down that antagonism which has made so much of the world’s history, and to blend their resources for man’s welfare. A Power upon that throne, having as much might as it has right, should control a realm extending from the Adriatic Sea to the Persian Gulf, and from the Danube to the Mediterranean. From that point natural highways by sea and land proceed, like the radii of a circle, in all directions where rule can be enforced or commerce developed—to Russia, to Asia, to Africa, to the lands of the West.

General Directorate of Electrification in Bulgaria

With a view to regional electrification, the General Directorate of Electrification in Bulgaria with the Ministry of Electrification, Waters and Natural Resources completed the construction of a 20 kV overhead transmission line: Varna-Provadia-Shoumen, thus in 1947 the two power plants were connected for electric power exchange.

Besides the electrification of towns and villages in the region, one of the high-priority objectives of the Shoumen electricity supply enterprise was the electrification of the water-supply pump stations in the dry Ludogorie region and in whole Dobrudja-9 districts as a whole by that time. By 1944, 85 settlements of the 157 planned were supplied with water.

Gorna Oryahovitsa Electrification Region

The Gorna Oryahovitsa Electrification Region was formed around a centre situated at the Gorna Oryahovitsa railway junction due to its geographical and infrastructure conditions. In that fertile and active region, a leading role in electrification was played by Gabrovo where a significant textile industry was developed at the beginning of the 20th century by followers of Racho the Blacksmith and Ivan Hadjiberov.

Several water syndicates (WS) were set up in that region: Malusha (1922), Gramadata (1926), Rositsa (1921), Yantra (1921), as well as joint-stock companies and cooperatives (Bedek, Videlina), and a dozen of industrial enterprises that intended to meet their own electricity demand, as well as to provide public power supply. The leading role in that respect belonged to Gramadata WS-Gabrovo. In 1926 it built a reliable diesel power plant of the same name with initial generator capacity of 166kW, 6kV, thus laying the beginning of the overall public power supply in Gabrovo. Only a few years later, a new 450 hp diesel engine was supplied to Gramadata DPP.

Several other electrical utilities were also built in the region: Malusha HPP with two units, 420 hp and 160 hp (1940], Batoshevo 1 HPP on the Rositsa river, 625 kW (1926), and Bedek TPP in Tryavna with unit capacities 600 kW (1931) and 2000 kW (1935), as well as a 60 kV overhead transmission line to Maritsa East 1 and 60/20 kV Gabrovo Substation (1945).

Long as Serbia and her allies

To cut it was to deprive those armies of reinforcements, munitions, and other supplies coming from the south. Furthermore, possession of the Morava-Maritza trench would never be secure so long as Serbia and her allies held the Yardar depression, for at any moment they might launch a bolt along this natural groove which would sever the Orient Railway at Nish and thus undo all that had been accomplished through the new alliance with Bulgaria. For the Teuton-Bulgar forces the capture of the combined Morava and Yardar valleys was a single military problem. Let us examine the physiographic features which serve as natural defenses of this important trench.

The Northern Defenses. The Morava valley is widely open to the north and is there bounded on both sides by comparatively low hills. An enemy securing a foothold in the rolling country to the east or west could enter from either of these directions as well as from the north, just as the Orient Railway coming from Belgrade enters the valley from the west, twenty-five miles above its mouth. Hence an effective barrier against attack from the north must cover more than the actual breadth of the northern entrance to the valley. Such a barrier is provided by the natural moat of the Save and Danube Rivers which protects the entire northern frontier of Serbia; and by the hills south of the moat which, as one progresses southward, rise into a wild, mountainous highland.

South of Mitrovitza

The Save is a late-mature river swinging in great meanders across a broad, marshy flood-plain. The extensive swamp-lands on either side of the river are difficult to traverse at any time, while the flood waters which spread over the lowland in spring and autumn often make the barrier quite impassable except at Mitrovitza (not to be confused with the Mitrovitza near the Kosovo Polye referred to farther on). South of Mitrovitza and west of Shabatz the marshy peninsula between the Drina and the Save is called the Matchva and is famous for its inhospitable character. In volume the Save is of sufficient size to constitute an obstacle against invasion, but for purposes of navigation it suffers from its overlong meandering course and from frequent shifting of channels and sand-bars. At no point is the stream fordable, and at Belgrade alone is it crossed by a bridge.